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Cotton and the global economy

Cotton and the global economy

7 Apr 2021
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從一顆棉花看世界

最近,新疆的棉花成為國際重要議題,使平凡的棉花,再度引起關注。若論單一商品,今天的棉花,遠不若芯片、石油或黃金那麼受人重視。然而,大多數經濟體由農業邁向工業,初期都以紡織業為主,而作為農產品的棉花,是紡織業的主要原材料,也可以說是經濟發展由農業到工業的橋樑。不單如此,棉花及其有關的紡織業,數百年來均與全球政經發展緊密地交織一起。這裏就棉花對全球經濟發展作幾方面簡單的回顧。

人類認識和種植棉花已有很長的歷史,在亞洲、非洲和美洲均分別有數千年前使用棉花的歷史證明。歐洲人雖然一早知道棉花的存在,像被認為是西方歷史學之父的希羅多德(Herodotus)著作中曾提及在印度有「生長羊毛的樹」,但對棉花並不認識。在十六世紀前,歐洲人的衣服以羊毛和麻布為主要材料,但隨後的殖民主義時代,讓歐洲人認識到棉紡衣物的優點,也促進了數百年棉紡工業對全球經濟演變的影響。

機械工業生產改變世界格局

棉花和紡織的生產技術不算複雜,甚至可以是家庭手作,所謂男耕女織。不過,在小農經濟的環境下,生產力自然很低,亦無規模經濟效應。然而,歐洲對棉產品需求大幅上升時,遇上了工業革命。1784年,英國人薩繆爾.格雷格(Samuel Greg)在曼徹斯特郊區建造了第一家機械化的棉紡工廠,以附近河流的水力作為能源。自此,機械化生產愈趨普遍,生產力大幅提高。之前在棉紡生產中心的印度,需要5萬小時的工作才可以紡織100磅的棉花,到1825年的英國,則只需135小時 【註1】。

產量上升使產品價格下跌,甚至低於印度的水平,促使英國棉產品的出口在20年內增加了16倍。這導致兩個結果。一是原來的棉產品出口國反過來成為西方產品傾銷的目的地。二是英國的強勁出口,迫使法國、德國、比利時等其他國家採取保護主義政策。像法國便在1806至1814年期間禁止英國棉產品進口。在沒有英國產品競爭的環境下,加上機械化的提升,歐洲其他國家也鞏固了棉紡和其他行業的工業化。保護本國的新興工業,需要強大的國家體制,如巡視邊境的武裝力量和審裁貿易案件的法庭。被殖民制度弱化的地方如巴西和印度等,都沒有這些條件,它們的棉紡工業自然受到歐洲產品的嚴重打擊,在隨後的200年,工業化的步伐仍然遠遠落後歐美,到今天仍然如是。

棉紡工業的高速發展需要大量的棉花作為原材料,而當時歐洲所用棉花主要來自美洲。歐洲殖民者恣意掠奪新大陸的土地,並將原住民趕盡殺絕。除土地外,棉花的種植亦需要大量的勞動力;而勞動力的來源,主要是被販賣到美國作奴隸的非洲人。在1783至1808年間,便有17萬非洲人被賣到美國南部的棉花種植園作奴隸。眾所周知,奴隸制度的存廢是1861年美國內戰的主因,內戰使美國的棉花工業陷於停頓。習慣了在全球左右逢源的英國商人,這時又轉向印度。美國內戰的第二年,英國人在印度的基建(主要是鐵路)投資,是一年前的兩倍,而來自印度的棉花,達到當年英國棉花進口的75%。

相對於美國棉花種植園的奴隸工,是英國棉紡工廠裏的童工。工業革命使人想起詹姆斯.瓦特(James Watt)的蒸汽機,但因為生產規模的擴大,機器的出現並沒有減少對勞動力的需求。另一方面,工廠的生產模式,淘汰了家庭作業式的紡織品,婦女和兒童在沒有選擇下只能出賣長時間的勞動力來賺取微薄的工資。大文豪狄更斯少年時亦因父親欠債入獄,當上了數年的童工,因而筆下都是苦海孤雛、塊肉餘生。紡織和其他界別的工人數目,在工業化期間迅速增加,形成馬克思的無產階級,推動了全球各地的工人運動和社會運動,左右着全球政經的演變。

美國鼓勵竊取棉花技術知識

與此同時,棉紡業的生產和外貿規模愈趨龐大,增加了產業的全球化程度,同時也有必要引進中介的角色。當時較大型的企業要協調棉花的種植、採購、紡織、製衣、進出口和融資等各個環節及利益相關者,這個模式可以說是現時全球化資本主義商業的雛形。

上文提到美國南部的奴隸工和棉花種植,屬於美國的農業範疇。美國棉紡工業的發展,則是另一個故事。早期美國紡織工業的技術水平,和英國、歐洲有相當的差距;美國得以在後來追上,靠的是明目張膽的竊取外國知識產權 【註2】。不單是民間為了商業利益這樣做,美國政府亦鼓勵有關的做法。美國首任財政部長亞歷山大.漢彌爾頓(Alexander Hamilton)在1791年的製造業報告書中,表明會獎勵那些把有價值的行業秘密帶到美國的人。1793年的美國專利法,更授專利權予那些從外國偷回來的新技術發明,使有關人士可以在美國名正言順地利用新技術來賺錢,但外國人則不能獲得美國的專利權。英國為了保護領先的經濟地位,則禁止紡織機的出口和紡織工人移民外國。

1789年,21歲的英國人塞繆爾.斯萊特(Samuel Slater)喬裝為雇農從英國到達美國。他在英國時於一家有專利技術的棉花工廠工作,掌握了有關的技術,並在美國建立同類工廠再加以發揮,成為頗有名氣的企業家。有人稱他為美國工廠制度之父,第七任美國總統安德魯.傑克森(Andrew Jackson)更稱他為美國工業革命之父,但英國人則叫他作叛徒(Slater the traitor)。

一張機,織梭光景去如飛

Slater移民美國20年後,美國的紡織業技術仍然落後於英國。當時英國的領先技術,是埃德蒙.卡特賴特(Edmund Cartwright)發明的織布機,但有關技術最終也被美國偷去。來自波士頓的美國商人法蘭西斯.羅威爾(Francis Lowell),多年來一直從英國進口大批成衣,並與英國製造商建立了良好的客戶關係。其後他訪問蘇格蘭的愛丁堡,但因身體不適,按醫生的囑咐逗留了一段時間。期間,他獲得一些朋友的推介,參觀了英格蘭和蘇格蘭禁衞森嚴的一些紡織廠。參觀時他並沒有刻意問什麼問題,也不作任何記錄。1812年他回美國,船在大西洋半途中給英國護衞艦截停,經過數天的拘留搜查,英國士兵找不到任何證據後將他放行。Lowell回到美國後,憑他驚人的記憶力,重組英國先進織布機的資料,並在麻省開設有關的紡織廠,以及將技術進一步提升。通過類似的故事,美國一步步追上英國和歐洲的技術水平,並在隨後工業化的過程中處於領先地位。

「一張機,織梭光景去如飛。」以上是全球經濟演變中棉花飄過之處的一鱗半爪,反映出棉花及棉產品所見證的是非成敗。新疆的情況提醒我們,輕輕的棉花,到今天依然承載着歷史的重量。

 

註1: Beckert, Sven. Empire of Cotton: A Global History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2014.

註2: https://www.history.com/news/industrial-revolution-spies-europe

 

陸炎輝 港大經管學院榮譽副教授

(本文同時於二零二一年四月七日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄。)

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