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HKEJ Column

Home Research Thought Leadership HKEJ Column

The Rise of Populism

3 Jul 2019
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民粹主義的抬頭

3年前英國就脫歐進行了公投,結果出人意表,贊成脫歐的以4個百分點勝出,英國自此受盡了脫歐這個議題折騰,與歐盟就脫歐後安排進行的談判,到目前仍沒有達成協議,而代替卡梅倫出任首相的文翠珊,堅持至本年5月也相位不保。

英美兩大民粹例子

同是3年前舉行的美國總統選舉,特朗普在早期不被看好的情況下勝出。他上台後掀動的國際風雲,更加是舉世矚目。很多論者認為,英國脫歐公投的結果與特朗普的當選,都是民粹主義抬頭的主要例子。

事實上,除了英美兩國外,其他國家民粹主義的傾向愈來愈明顯。去年5月大選後成立的意大利政府,由五星運動和北方聯盟兩個政黨聯合組成,被《紐約時報》稱為現代西歐的第一個民粹主義政府。在此之前的希臘,因為債務危機和市民抗拒經濟緊縮政策而上台的激進左翼聯盟,也是一個民粹主義政府。前者屬於極端右翼,而後者則屬左翼政府。至於在法國由瑪琳勒龐領導的國民聯盟,以及德國的另類選擇黨,都是民粹主義政黨的例子。

若要量化地了解民粹主義的冒起,可參考瑞典智庫Timbro編製的民粹主義指數。這個指數按歐洲33個國家(包括歐盟28個成員)的260多個政黨在所屬國家的立法機構選舉中所得票數百分比來計算。有關數字顯示,歐洲的民粹主義政黨在2000年立法機構選舉中總得票率是11.8%,到最近一次選舉他們的總得票率已達到22.7%。

上面提及的都是歐洲的情況,而早期有關民粹主義的討論則以拉丁美洲為主,較為人熟知的是三度當選阿根廷總統的貝隆。著名音樂劇《貝隆夫人》(Evita),說的就是他夫人伊娃的故事。阿根廷的經濟條件本來不錯,但經濟政策多年來屢犯錯失,致使國家滯留於中等收入陷阱,經濟裹足不前。

阿根廷的人均本地生產總值在1962年是美國的36%,到2018年則下跌至只有18%,近年亦常面對未能償還外債的困擾。至於近期在拉丁美洲的民粹主義例子,當數委內瑞拉的查維斯和馬杜羅。

民粹主義一詞源於十九世紀,內涵的主要出發點是「人民」,但使用時往往把人民與精英和建制對立起來,因此民粹主義很多時被看成是反精英主義,表現在經濟領域則與自由主義和市場經濟大相逕庭,甚至互不相容。

舉個例子,查維斯在1998年當上委內瑞拉總統後,便啟動了他的所謂玻利維亞使命,主要是增加社會福利、反貧窮、土地改革等措施。無論這是為人民服務還是為選票服務,這些政策籠統來說無可厚非,但後來因石油價格上升,政府的財政收入增加,這些福利政策愈做愈大,當油價下跌時,便出現種種問題。針對這些問題,查維斯的應變是出動政府有形之手,如價格管制,甚至軍隊介入等等。

查維斯於2013年去世後,接任的馬杜羅繼續實行民粹主義經濟政策,甚至變本加厲,結果使委內瑞拉的經濟掉進深谷。這裏的論述難免粗疏,但只要看看委內瑞拉豐富的石油資源(蘊藏量全球第一),對比她百分之數十萬的通脹率、崩潰的貨幣制度、消費必需品缺乏、人民逃亡鄰國等,雖然當中包含美國經濟制裁的因素,但仍然可以看出背後錯誤的經濟政策。

民粹主義經濟政策雖然導致較多的財政開支和財政赤字,但政府財政有時不一定全屬於國家管理的範圍之內,像歐羅區的意大利,去年新政府上台後,便跟歐盟因財政赤字作為本地生產總值百分比的高低發生爭論,帶出了意大利可能退出歐羅區的可能性,使意大利跟隨希臘和西班牙等國家成為歐羅不穩定的因素之一。

香港如何重新出發

民粹主義的冒起,涉及政治、社會、文化、政策等等多種因素,因此在不同國家會有不同的情況和表現。但無論有多複雜,都離不開經濟因素的影響,而其中經濟全球化更是最主要的因素。

經濟全球化,可以解釋為經濟活動跨越國界的比例愈來愈高。跨越國界的,包括商品、服務、資金、資產、職位、勞動力等。商品跨越國界,即國際貿易,會重新分配工作和工資。雖然貿易可帶來淨利益,但這些利益如何分配,是貿易容易被政治化的根本原因。在貿易中較少受重用的生產要素或工人,便成為經濟全球化的受害者,因此工人對二戰後以自由主義和市場經濟為主導的國際經濟秩序產生不滿。

經濟全球化至八十年代步伐加快,一方面是因為科技進步,以前不能的變成可能,如更細緻的分工和供應鏈的管理;另一方面是政策的改變,主要是八十年代中國、九十年代印度和前東歐及蘇聯經濟的改革開放。加速的經濟全球化,進一步鞏固了國際貿易帶來的受惠和受損。

最近,普林斯頓大學政治學教授維爾納.米勒(Jan Werner Müller)建議對民粹主義重新定義。按他的看法,民粹主義者並不一定反精英和反建制,像特朗普和推動英國脫歐的前獨立黨主席法拉奇,都算是精英和屬於建制內。他認為,民粹主義者肯定他們代表「真正的人民」。引申下去,他們就壟斷了所謂人民的定義,並排除了人民這個概念可能的多元化含義。特朗普的移民政策、和支持英國脫歐以減少通過歐盟到英國移民的想法,都是這種思路。

從這個角度看,似乎民粹主義比比皆是。香港也不例外,一個本來是「放開彼此心中矛盾,理想一起去追」的城市,竟然孕育出濃厚的「非我族類,其心必異」的社會心態。由於香港沒有普選,起碼暫時沒有,因此應該不會出現民粹主義政府。但沒有民粹主義政府,不等於沒有民粹主義的思維。香港要重新出發,需要考慮的事情多着呢!

陸炎輝 香港大學經濟及工商管理學院榮譽副教授
(本文同時於二零一九年七月三日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)​

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