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Home Research Thought Leadership In the Media

Currency Manipulation and Trade War

5 Jun 2019
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貨幣操縱與貿易戰

大約三年半前還在競選期間,特朗普便曾揚言,會在上任美國總統的第一天,宣佈中國是貨幣操縱國。然而,他上台已兩年半,而現時亦是中美在貿易、科技和商業各方面角力硝煙瀰漫之際,美國還沒有標籤中國是貨幣操縱國。

貨幣操控 概念難定

一個原因是,貨幣操控在概念上或意圖上難以確定,而即使美國財政部對貨幣操縱有較明確的界定,中國也不符合這些準則。另一個原因是,當美國已經祭出25%關稅及殺傷力更大的武器時,標籤中國是貨幣操縱國對美國的幫助相對顯得微不足道。

按目前的程序,美國若認為某一經濟體操控貨幣,便會與對方談判,迫使對方貨幣升值及減少對美國的貿易盈餘。若情況在一年內沒有改變,美國便會採用其他對策,如指令貿易代表在雙邊或多邊貿易協議向對方施壓,或呼籲國際貨幣基金對該經濟作嚴厲的宏觀經濟監督。可以看出,這些措施對小型經濟或有阻嚇力,對大型經濟或在雙方已亮劍的貿易戰中並無作用。

美國針對外國貨幣操控的法案在1988年制定,首當其衝的是南韓和台灣。這兩個經濟體都在美國的壓力下,在80年代末和90年代初多次將貨幣升值和減少外匯管制,始得擺脫貨幣操縱國的標籤。

中國也曾在90年代初數次被美國列為貨幣操縱國。然而,中國並沒有將人民幣升值,反而在94年大幅度將官方匯價貶值。當時的情況是,改革開放才十年多,新的匯率制度有待建立,人民幣的官方匯率仍然像在計劃經濟時被高估。與此同時,也有為進出口商而設的外匯調劑市場和民間的黑市。94年的貶值一下子將三個市場統一起來,其後亦確立了人民幣在經常帳上的自由兌換,為隨後中國的外貿奠定了良好基礎。若當時受制於美國貨幣操控的指責而將人民幣升值、或過早放寬外匯管制,很可能會影響到隨後的外貿表現和宏觀金融穩定。

95年,建基於關稅及貿易總協定(GATT)的世界貿易組織(WTO)成立,美國轉為較多以WTO的機制來處理與別國的貿易糾紛,亦與中國進行定期的中美戰略經濟對話來 討論和解決有關的雙邊問題,因此多年來並沒有再將中國或其他經濟體標籤為貨幣操控國。然而,美國財政部仍維持每半年發表一份報告,列出懷疑貨幣操控的國家以作監察,而中國通常都在這名單上。這份報告一般在四月和十月發表,但最近一期延至上週五月底才面世,未知是否受貿易戰和中美談判進展的影響。

原則上,貨幣貶值會減少出口商品價格及增加進口商品價格,因而可增加貿易盈餘和外匯儲備。因此,很多經濟學家認為操控貨幣使其貶值是不公平貿易的手法,應予以制裁。可是,匯率政策和貨幣政策等同一個硬幣的兩面,不能分割。貨幣貶值,可以是刻意操縱的結果,旨在刺激出口和外貿盈餘,也可以是針對宏觀經濟的貨幣政策下的結果,原意與貿易無關。這兩者有時難以分辨。舉例說,特朗普常給聯邦儲備局壓力促使其減息以刺激股市和美國經濟,增加明年總統大選連任的機會。若聯儲局真的因壓力而減息,會導致市場對競選期間美國息口進一步下滑的預期,美元匯價便會趨於弱勢。那特朗普算不算操控貨幣?

既然貨幣操縱的概念並不清晰,難以直接觀察,美國就乾脆以貨幣操縱可能帶來的後果作為界定。在上面提及美國財政部每年發表兩次的報告中,貨幣操控涉及三個條件,某國若全部符合便算是貨幣操控國了。其一是該國對美國的貿易盈餘達到每年二百億美元;其二是該國的經常帳盈餘達到本地生產總值的 3%;其三是該國央行在12個月內起碼有八個月在外匯市場購買外幣以弱化本地貨幣,並使外匯儲備按年增長達本地生產總值的2%。

在過去一年中,中國只符合第一個條件,因而沒有被列為貨幣操縱國。中國對美國的外貿盈餘達到四千多億美元,遠高於條件一的二百億,但因為中國經濟龐大,經常帳盈餘佔本地生產總值不到半個百分點,低於條件二的3%。至於中國的外匯儲備,在過去一年並沒有顯著變化,因而也不符合條件三。

中美貿戰 越南受惠

事實上,自從2015年8月人民幣突然貶值後,人民幣的市場匯率已趨於弱勢,不用人民銀行主動將其弱化。人民銀行做的,反而是防止人民幣過度貶值,像上週銀保監會主席郭樹清演講時便警告投機做空人民幣必會蒙受巨大損失,出口術以穩固人民幣兌美元的匯價在7算這個心理關口以下。

若果往後回顧,94年匯率改革後至04年期間,人民幣緊盯美元,但當時每年的外貿盈餘為數不多,並不符合美國貨幣操控的界定。中國的外貿盈餘在05年開始大幅度增加,亦因此而受到外國要求人民幣升值的壓力。05至15年期間,中國有相當多的外貿盈餘,亦累積了相當多的外匯儲備,但同時人民幣的名義有效匯率升值了47%,實際有效匯率更升值了57%,因此很難說中國操控貨幣導致不公平貿易。

美國財政部在上週發表的半年報中,就貨幣操控的三個條件作出兩個修訂,包括將條件二中經常帳佔本地生產總值由3%減至2%,及條件三中央行每年有八個月干預外匯市場購買外幣改為每年六個月。這明顯地是降低了門檻,使外國更容易被標籤為貨幣操縱國。這些更改反映出界定貨幣操縱國的隨意性,及美國在現時國際貿易動盪環境中的部署。

順帶一提,以前美國財政部只審視美國12個最大的貿易夥伴,以確定其中有沒有貨幣操控行為。但在最新的報告中,則包括了所有與美國雙邊貿易每年達到400億美元的經濟體,數目因而增加至21個(最後一個是香港)。21個經濟體中,越南符合了兩個條件,因而被置於監察名單中。越南同時也是最接近符合全數三個條件的經濟體。有趣的是,越南可能是中美貿易戰中最大的受惠者。當企業將在中國的營運轉至越南時,會否大幅度地增加越南的外貿盈餘和外匯儲備,成為多年來第一個被美國標籤的貨幣操縱國?

陸炎輝 香港大學經濟及工商管理學院榮譽副教授
(本文同時於二零一九年六月五日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)​

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