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Home Research Thought Leadership HKEJ Column
U.S. monetary policy: 2023 Q2 review and outlook

U.S. monetary policy: 2023 Q2 review and outlook

28 Jun 2023
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2023年第二季美國貨幣政策回顧和展望

美國的通脹仍然高於聯儲局2%的長期目標,促使其維持偏緊的貨幣政策。然而,今年早前一連串銀行危機進一步拖累美國經濟表現,並使聯儲局政策調整變得更為複雜。本文扼要闡述本年第二季美國經濟表現和貨幣政策。

當前美國經濟情況

2023年美國通脹雖持續放緩,但仍顯著高於聯儲局2%的長期目標。截至今年4月,個人消費開支(PCE)物價指數與核心PCE物價指數分別升4.4%與4.7%。

美國勞工市場依然偏緊,今年5月失業率處於3.7%的低水平。由於勞動力供不應求,工資與物價(尤其是服務業等勞工密集行業)上漲壓力持續。同時,今年5月的勞動人口參與率已回到相當於疫前水平的62.6%,而非農就業人數則上升至1.56億人。

由於緊縮貨幣政策導致按揭利率上揚,美國樓市持續低迷。同時,利率攀升增加企業營運成本,加上市場對經濟前景轉趨黯淡的憂慮,皆導致企業固定投資縮減。美國今年第一季的實質本地生產總值按年增長1.6%,一如預期升幅偏低。市場及聯儲局均認為今年稍後時間或會出現「溫和衰退」。

今年美國銀行危機始於銀門銀行(Silvergate Bank)3月8日關閉業務。同日,為籌集現金應付存戶提款,矽谷銀行宣布出售證券和舉行緊急股票發售,此舉引致恐慌性擠提,監管機構3月10日以流動性不足和資不抵債為由,宣布接管矽谷銀行。簡而言之,矽谷銀行倒閉主因在於其未能有效管控利率風險──市場利率在過去一年多因聯儲局實施緊縮貨幣政策而趨升,因而在矽谷銀行出售所持未到期國庫債券時引發大額虧損,最終招致擠提。3月12日,同樣受擠提影響的Signature Bank亦被監管機構關閉。矽谷銀行和Signature Bank是其時美國歷史上第二大和第三大銀行破產事件。

為穩住銀行業,以免危機蔓延至其他金融機構,聯邦存款保險公司宣布所有存戶(包括原本無受保險保障的存款者)均受保障。標準普爾500指數等市場指標止跌回升,顯示這政策有效維持銀行業的穩定及公眾對銀行業的信心。至5月1日,資產達2290億美元的第一共和銀行亦被監管機構接管,銀行存款及資產悉數售予摩根大通。按資產總值計算,2023年銀行業倒閉潮的嚴重程度為自2001年以來的歷史新高。

縱使在銀行危機和經濟或現「溫和衰退」的陰霾下,美國股市年初至今依然表現出色,期內標準普爾500指數升幅高達13%。

為把通脹壓低至2%的長期目標,聯儲局從2022年3月起將聯邦基金利率目標區間從接近零的水平逐步調高;今年2月議息後宣布把目標區間上調到介乎4.5厘至4.75厘。3月銀行危機之時,聯儲局繼續提升聯邦基金利率目標區間到介乎4.75厘至5厘,但將「預期未來還需要加息」之說中「還需」字眼改為「或需」。5月時,隨着銀行危機緩和,聯儲局將聯邦基金利率目標區間再提升到介乎5厘至5.25厘。在6月舉行的最近一次會議,聯儲局首次維持聯邦基金利率目標區間不變,同時表明預期未來仍將持續加息。聯儲局成員認為,假設美國經濟發展步伐一如預期,則2023年年底適當的聯邦基金利率中位數應為5.6厘。

當前美國貨幣政策

6月聯儲局暫停加息的一大原因顯然源於今年的銀行危機。部分中型銀行發現有必要增加資金流動性,故此對家庭及企業客戶嚴守謹慎貸款原則,這從近期發表的高級貸款專員意見調查(SLOOS)結果可見一斑。銀行的困境促成其進一步收緊對家庭及企業的信貸,廣義而言,信貸緊縮亦有助於壓低通脹,跟提升利率的效果相似。

此外,這次銀行危機亦增加聯儲局決策上的不確定性,例如銀行因此收緊貸款的程度會有多大?收緊貸款會持續多久?銀行危機對貸款的影響是否還有滯後效應?對招聘方面又有何影響?此次銀行危機連同當前貨幣政策會產生怎樣的協同效應?所謂「以不變應萬變」,聯儲局暫停進一步加息,是在等待更多訊息,以評估經濟發展及通脹前景,從而更精準地判斷加息時機。

至於非常規貨幣政策,聯儲局繼續縮減其資產負債表規模。自2022年6月1日起,聯儲局將公開市場操作賬戶中的證券本金,僅把超出每月規定上限的部分作再投資。

雖然聯儲局在本年6月議息後暫停加息,但縮表操作仍繼續進行。值得一提的是,為應對3月時的銀行危機,聯儲局當月曾一度大幅擴表,隨即又回歸縮表。當時該局主席解釋,突然擴表「向銀行提供臨時貸款並非為了直接改變貨幣政策立場,而是為了應對近期銀行業在壓力下對流動資金的特殊需求。」

美國貨幣政策展望

聯儲局自去年3月10次加息,將聯邦基金利率目標區間提升到介乎5厘至5.25厘,速度為數十年之最。根據迄今為止的經濟數據和資料,筆者們認為聯儲局暫緩加息實屬審慎而具策略性之舉,並且預期今年餘下時間大概不會再大幅加息,原因包括下列因素。

一方面,儘管目前美國通脹仍高於2%長期目標,但物價壓力已漸見緩和。同時聯儲局預期勞工市場供應短缺的狀況將續見改善,當勞工市場供求逐步恢復平衡,其對工資與物價的壓力(尤其是服務業)亦會隨之降低。另外,各行各業的供應者逐漸適應疫後全球供應鏈新形勢,通脹壓力將伴隨供求缺口收窄而相應減輕。市場價格對貨幣政策的反應雖不免滯後,但已開始作出調整,例如最近美國二手車市場呈現價格下跌,可能部分反映早前緊縮貨幣政策的效應。

另一方面,若聯儲局維持大幅加息,會增加美國經濟「硬着陸」的風險。聯儲局力求在不引發嚴重經濟衰退的情況下穩定物價,尤其在今年的銀行危機暴露出銀行業界在大幅加息政策下的軟肋後,金融穩定性成為聯儲局政策措施的關鍵考慮因素之一,以避免引發金融危機。

另外,儘管債務上限法案最近獲得通過,美國政府暫無債務違約之虞,而財政部仍始終須為聯儲局的主要支付賬戶填數。若財政部因此發行新國債,或透過擠出效應減少市場上的流動資金,對銀行體系、企業及家庭勢持續構成挑戰。不可不察的是,聯儲局大幅縮表的計劃尚在進行中,其對經濟的緊縮效應依然持續。

最後,貨幣政策工具無疑存在其局限性。本輪美國高通脹主因在於宏觀經濟供求失衡。要使通脹重返目標水平,總體供應必須足以應付總體需求。緊縮貨幣政策是需求管理工具,主要透過限制需求以遏止通脹,卻無法有效解決當前種種供應問題,例如國內工人短缺、地緣政局不穩定、全球供應鏈重塑,以及油價暴漲等。以上因素均對美國經濟和金融發展至關重要,亦將影響聯儲局未來政策走向。

 

曹曦月博士
港大經管學院經濟學講師

何志培博士
港大經管學院經濟學講師

(本文同時於二零二三年六月二十八日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)

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