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HKEJ Column

Home Research Thought Leadership HKEJ Column

The Inversion of Monetary Policy and Fiscal Policy

6 Mar 2019
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貨幣政策與財政政策的顛倒

一般而言,經濟活動創造價值,而政治活動則分配價值。無論在香港或外地,政府每年的財政預算,作用都主要在分配價值,自然備受市民關注。香港政府在政治上處於弱勢,近年財政又多錄得盈餘,因此往往會以「派糖」方式來安撫人心。多年來,市民和政黨於是總著眼於派糖的範圍和數量,反而忽略全盤考慮財政預算。

縱觀全球,除了一些石油輸出國以外,香港是少數長期有財政盈餘的經濟體。若說香港是小型開放經濟,政府對經濟活動的調控能力有所限制,那財政理應是盈餘與赤字約略參半。持續錄得財政盈餘,反映政府理財過分保守。每年按盈餘數額來斟酌各項開支的增減幅度,效率總不及某些年份難免出現財赤的長期預算計劃。

理財思維倒置由來

一般的看法是,財政盈餘總比財政赤字為佳,所以問題不大。為解財赤,政府必須加稅或發行國債;加稅自然會遇到政治阻力,而發債則等於待將來還債時,對下一代人徵稅,種下日後反對的禍根。此外,發債還會推高市場利率,產生減少個人消費和企業投資的排擠效果。若發行的國債隨着按年的財赤滾存,更會因市場懷疑政府乏力抵債而引發經濟和金融危機。然而這些對財政赤字的主流觀點,漸受所謂「現代貨幣理論」挑戰,而大眾傳媒對這個理論亦日益關注。

現代貨幣理論 (Modern Monetary Theory, 簡稱MMT) 的出發點,是政府的財政有別於與個人或企業的財政。政府可隨時透過發行貨幣,以支付開支或償還債務。因此,無論政府的支出有多大,債台有多高,只要借入的不是外幣,都不會面臨財政問題,也不會導致經濟危機。政府利用發行貨幣方式支付,這一點並無異議,也不是什麼新鮮的觀點。但MMT卻由此引伸,認為政府在用錢時,儘管須考慮到政策是否得宜,或是否得到市民支持,卻不必先考慮財政來源,反正遲早可以通過發行貨幣來支付。這可說是顛倒了傳統上量入為出的理財思維。

基於 MMT 的思路,政府可以大刀闊斧,發揮調控經濟的能力,擺脫經濟衰退或花錢為市民提供各種服務,直到受資源所限、物價上升為止。若開支過頭導致通脹,也可通過加稅使貨幣回籠來應付。換句話說,政府增加開支時貨幣供應會上升,提高稅率時貨幣供應則會下跌;貨幣政策與財政政策變得難以分辨,與一貫的理解背道而馳。此外,由於政府的開支是通過發行貨幣來融資,市場的資金隨政府開支上升,所以政府開支不會推高利率,因而亦不會引發排擠效果,財政政策的效果不會因私人開支減少而抵消。

MMT以位於美國堪薩斯城的密蘇里大學和在紐約巴德學院的利維經濟研究所為兩大重鎮,其思想根源則可追溯至凱恩斯及更早的 「名目說」(chartalism),有關論述大概十年前以MMT 的名稱在學界出現,但沒有受到什麼重視和關注。MMT在最近兩年的曝光率愈來愈高,主要是因為它能為政客提供方便的理論基礎。曾在密蘇里大學堪薩斯分校任教多年,現已轉往石溪大學的 Stephanie Kelton,堪稱MMT的傳媒發言人。她曾是民主黨在參議院預算委員會的首席經濟師,也是2016年競逐民主黨總統參選人桑德斯的競選高級經濟顧問。桑德斯在上週末正式宣佈會再度參選美國總統。去年中期選舉成功當上參議員的政治紅人Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez,同樣明言接受和擁護MMT。當這些政治人物被問到聯邦政府就業擔保 (Federal Job Guarantee)、全民醫療補助 (Medicaid for All) 、綠色新政(Green New Deal)及翻新基礎建設等龐大項目如何支付時,MMT 便提供了即時答案;看來MMT會在未來數年繼續備受青睞。

量入為出最後防線

隨着民粹主義抬頭,政府開支自然有上升壓力。去年在意大利大選中獲勝的民粹派政客,當選後所推出的財政預算,赤字佔生產總值的百分比高於歐盟的建議,新上任的意大利政府因而與歐盟有所爭執,導致歐洲金融的一些短暫波動。若政府可利用發行貨幣來支付開支,不受稅收和債券市場的規範,雖然可以輕易滿足選民的要求,但亦同時帶來通脹壓力。

按照MMT的主張,通脹出現時可通過提高稅率,減少國內貨幣流通量,但要提高哪些稅種和幅度多少,都有財富和收入重新分配的作用及相關的政治含義。或許這正是有關政客的考慮,可以藉此推動自己的政治議程。但以財政政策來處理通貨膨脹, 並非對症下藥。財政政策制定需時,單是討論和決定加什麼稅,就往往爭論不休,更不用說很多稅種或要在制定政策之後,歷經一段時間方才生效,如入息稅每年才繳付一次,到新稅率影響經濟活動時,通脹已不知發展到什麼地步了。MMT以發行貨幣來支持政府開支,又以稅收應付通脹,恰好是將貨幣政策和財政政策的功能對換,難望行之有效。

事實上,MMT的理論框架相對粗糙,主要是靜態的資產負債表分析,缺乏主流宏觀經濟學的動態優化分析,因此所得的結論並不豐富,缺乏針對長期經濟增長的見解,亦難以對理論進行實證研究,以便測試其可行性。遺憾的是,這些粗枝大葉、似是而非的理論,卻被當作重要政治議程的經濟基礎,倒不知這現象反映出思想的貧乏,抑或政治的粗疏。

還好,無論怎樣評價香港的政治,由於當前採用貨幣發行局制度,特區政府不能隨意發行貨幣;在這個大前提之下,MMT的建議無法實施,否則本港經濟又加添一重顧慮。

陸炎輝 香港大學經濟及工商管理學院榮譽副教授
(本文同時於二零一九年三月六日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)​

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