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Home Research Thought Leadership In the Media
The Trade War and Macroeconomic Identities

The Trade War and Macroeconomic Identities

21 May 2025
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貿易戰與宏觀經濟恆等式

早前中美雙方在日內瓦就關稅會談,出乎意料地迅速達成休戰共識,關稅稅率暫時回落至所謂美國「解放日」之前的水平,但全球局面却難復舊觀。美國總統特朗普玩弄所謂談判技巧,叫價忽高忽低、忽真忽假,威逼利誘,爲己方製造談判空間。可是礙于底氣不足,邏輯紊亂,貿易戰猶如美方蹩脚的馬戲班雜耍,將全球經濟政策不確定性指數推至歷史高點【注1】。

經過一個多月的折騰,特朗普的關稅神話已不攻自破。說關稅是由外國而非美國支付,却在沃爾瑪通知消費者貨品因關稅而加價時,責成沃爾瑪應「吞下」關稅,而非轉嫁給消費者。說關稅會重振美國製造業和創造工作崗位,却批評蘋果公司首席執行官庫克將iPhone生産轉到印度,而非帶回美國。

至于金融市場對關稅上升或暫緩的大幅度反應,更是不留情面的表達關稅大棒對經濟的負面影響。特朗普團隊只能改變口風,說關稅畢竟有些短期影響,長遠來說還是對美國利多于弊。

目前,除了與英國達成沒太多實質內容的協議外,美國和其他國家的貿易談判還沒任何成果。對等關稅90天寬限期將在7月9日結束,大抵各國都認識到美國外强中乾,想多看其他國家的情况來判斷美國的底綫,沒快快下跪,這使美國的處境愈來愈尷尬,因此特朗普和財政部長貝桑都分別在數天前表示,若各國沒談判誠意,美國便會單方面徵收「解放日」當天宣布的對等關稅稅率。這是美國慣性的威嚇伎倆,惟事情畢竟要解决,也許在未來數周會出現一些突破口。

進口遏本地生産屬錯誤理解

特朗普和他的團隊把關稅鬧得這麽大,賭上美國的經濟和國際形象,自然有他們的看法和執念,雖然不一定都正確,這裏以兩條宏觀經濟學入門的恒等式來討論。

美國上月底公布本年首季GDP數字,實質增長率與前一季相比,以按年下跌0.3%的速度减少,大部分美國輿論都認爲是美國企業爭取在特朗普政府提高關稅之前,大量進口外國商品所致。衆多的主流傳媒,包括《華爾街日報》、《華盛頓郵報》、彭博、消費者新聞與商業頻道等,均如此報道。背後的思路,是進口降低了本地生産。

按這個邏輯推理,中國多年來對美國的大量出口,便嚴重地拉低美國的生産和經濟增長,同時奪去美國工人的就業機會。特朗普兩次當選總統,其中一原因是成功地利用這種思維,標榜自己會以關稅抗拒外國産品,保護美國和美國工人的利益。他的貿易顧問納瓦羅,也多年來不斷重複類似言論。

然而,進口會减少本地生産,是錯誤的理解,因爲進口是「外國的生産」,進口多少,影響的是外國而非本地生産。這或許不能完全澄清所有疑慮,那看看本地生産總值,也就是所謂GDP。

宏觀經濟學入門教科書,通常都會在首一、二章解釋GDP的量度方法,幷以Y=C+I+G+EX-IM這個算式表達,其中Y是GDP,C是消費,I是實質投資,G是政府開支,EX是出口,IM是進口。一般讀者會誤以爲進口IM的前面有减號,便得出IM增加、Y相應减少的結論。但這條公式只是會計結果,即在産量已成定局時(如去年的GDP)要找出它的總值,較簡單的做法就是計算公式右邊各組成部分的總和而已。若要瞭解進口或貿易逆差和GDP的關係,還得要加入有關的經濟行爲假設和分析,不能簡單地從這公式看出來。

進口與投資消費會互相抵消

舉例來說,若美國企業因預期關稅上調而提早從外國入貨,不錯會增加IM,但這不是唯一的經濟活動。如果貨品進口後暫時存入貨倉,那在上述公式中,企業的庫存投資(也就是I的一部分)會和進口同時上升,互相抵消而不會改變Y。如果貨品即時售予消費者,那等于消費增加,公式中的C亦會和進口同時上升及互相抵消。

同樣地,如果貨品是由政府而非企業進口,那麽G也會相應提高。

換句話說,美國本年首季GDP輕微收縮,與美國爭取在關稅提高前增加進口無關,而是其他原因導致。同理,IM數值的改變,一般都有相應的C、I、或G的改變而不影響到本地生産。

如果進口是用來替代本地産品,若消費者减少購買本地産品,轉買外國産品,那本地生産自然下跌。不過,嚴格來說,進口行爲幷不直接减少本地生産,後者下跌只是因消費者爲某些原因先不購買本地産品。若果原因是外國産品價廉物美,本地貨品難以競爭,那减少沒有競爭力行業的本地生産,讓廣大消費者購買更便宜的進口貨,是適當的安排,說不定騰出來的資源可轉移到更有優勢的行業。此外,進口和本地生産不一定互相取代,也可能是互相補充,特別是進口的是零部件或原材料,在這情况下,進口愈多,本地生産也會愈高。

總而言之,進口多少或貿易逆差多大,和本地生産總值的關係有多個可能性,幷非進口愈多本地生産必然愈少。反過來說,以關稅或其他貿易壁壘來限制進口,不一定會帶動本地生産,甚至可能弄巧反拙。過去數年,美國的進口總值持續擴大,但美國的失業率都維持在接近4%的歷史低位(新冠肺炎期間除外),與進口會减少本地生産的說法不符。

逆差與外資流入無因果關係

另一條被特朗普團隊誤用的宏觀經濟恒等式,是經常賬逆差等于淨外資流入。經常賬的主要部分是貿易餘額,爲簡單起見這裏就不考慮其他較小的部分。外資流入就是外國資金爲本地所用,也等于外國貸款給本地。

這兩者之所以恒等,以美國爲例,美國的貿易逆差能够成爲事實,或美國人用外國産品可以多于外國人用美國産品,無論在個人或企業層面如何安排,歸根究柢是美國人多用的外國産品是外國暫時借給美國的。美國的貿易逆差愈大,等于向外國討債愈多、或外資流入愈多,兩者同時出現,是一個硬幣的兩邊。

即使美國發行美元來支付貿易逆差,也等于欠外國債務,因爲美元是美國聯儲局的負債,亦是外國美元持有者的資産,只不過美元現金這個資産的名義回報率是零,低于美元債券而已。

經常賬逆差等于資金流入量這個恒等式,同樣是會計結果,不代表任何因果關係,特朗普團隊却作如下的論述。

由于美元是最主要的外匯儲備貨幣,衆多的外國央行均在外匯市場買入美元,使美元相對其他貨幣升值,導致美國多進口少出口,形成長期龐大的貿易逆差、製造業萎縮、工人失業及依賴外國産品,同時外國則有貿易順差,將從美國賺到的美元轉換爲美國政府債券。當外國持有的美債愈來愈多,會威脅到美元作爲儲備貨幣的地位及美國的國家安全。

換句話說,外國資金流入美國持有美元美債,導致美國外貿逆差及製造業流失,似乎是說美國多年來爲全球提供外匯儲備貨幣,竟要承擔經濟上損失,特朗普爲使美國再次偉大,减少美國的「委屈」,便一方面對衆多貿易夥伴大幅加征關稅,以及萌生將現有美債轉換爲百年無息長債的想法等。

然而,上面的論述與實際情况幷不相符,首先是外國央行持有的美國政府債券,自2012年起至去年底都徘徊于4萬億美元左右,甚至有些下跌【注2】。

這反映總的來說,外國央行在這期間幷沒有加持美國政府債券作爲外匯儲備,惟美國的經常賬逆差仍在2020年後增加很多。

其次,若以製造業雇員占全國非農業雇員的比例來代表製造業占美國經濟重要性的話,這比例從二戰結束時的35%持續有序地下跌至目前的約8%【注3】。但期間美元匯價經歷了多次大幅波動,如在1985年廣場協議後美元的實質有效匯率從118大幅貶值至數年後的90,幷持續數年處于低位,可是沒有改變製造業雇員比例下跌的速度和趨勢。

也許政客的經濟論述只是影響輿論及爲政治服務,但特朗普2.0才開始了4個月,經濟政策的邏輯已顯得左支右絀。在去年總統競選時被選民認爲是特朗普强項的經濟政策,到最近路透的調查中只得37%受訪者認同。看來全球經濟政策不確定性指數在未來數年都會在高位波動。

 

注1:https://www.policyuncertainty.com/
注2:https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/BOGZ1FL263061130Q
注3:https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=cAYh

 

陸炎輝博士
港大經管學院榮譽副教授

 

(本文同時於二零二五年五月二十一日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)

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