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In the Media

Home Research Thought Leadership In the Media

Sending Off the Spirit of Poverty: a Discussion on Poverty Reduction

21 Feb 2018
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送雞迎狗談脫貧

新曆年時候,人們都會談及新年願望或來年大計,而農曆年的時候,人們關注的,多是以生肖為本位的來年運程,以及如何趨吉避凶。這大概反映傳統中西文化中,人對自然是支配還是融合的分別。

中國歷史悠久、習俗豐富。今天是農曆正月初六,相傳是送「窮神」的日子,居民在這天會把數天前過年堆起來的垃圾一併扔出去,順便賦予一些好兆頭的說法。

社會未有完全脫貧

無論中外,都有擺脫貧窮和對美好物質生活的嚮往。要討論貧窮,必須先界定何謂貧窮,即制定「貧窮線」,並按這個界定來了解社會上貧窮人口的數目和狀況,再確定要處理貧窮的社會經濟政策。

不過,這個「數人頭」方法有一定缺點,因為若貧窮線以下的人口收入減少,貧窮情況定然惡化,但表現出來的貧窮指標(即貧窮線以下的人口數目)並無改變;同樣,若收入從貧窮人口轉至富有人口,貧窮的指標仍然一樣。

換句話說,以貧窮線以下的人口數目來代表貧窮的狀況,會忽略每位窮人的實際貧困程度,但這仍是目前在媒體討論中量度貧窮的普遍方法。

由於減貧或滅貧主要是國家的內政,所以貧窮線的訂立是每個國家或經濟體的內部決定。貧窮有時是指家庭收入低於基本生活所需的情況,這是絕對貧窮的概念,貧窮與否,要看收入是否能應付基本生活,與其他人的收入無直接關係。

不過,也有把貧窮界定為收入低於社會收入中位數的一定百分比,這是相對貧窮的概念,即使家庭收入有所提高,但若增長步伐慢於社會收入的中位數,仍算是比以前貧窮了。

中國目前的消除貧窮政策,是要到2020年實現農村完全脫貧,即達到「不愁吃、不愁穿」及「義務教育、基本醫療和住房得到保障」的目標。按這個要求,政府制定以2010年價格計算每人每年2300元人民幣的貧窮線。國家統計局每年根據農村低收入居民生活消費價格指數,對此進行?整。至2014年,農村貧困標準以當年價格計算為每人每年2800元,而2016年則增至3000元。這是絕對貧窮線的例子。

香港的貧窮線定在家庭收入中位數的50%。2016年,一人、二人和三人家庭的貧窮線分別是4000、9000和15000元。這是一個相對貧窮的概念。隨着經濟增長和家庭收入普遍因生產力上升而提高,貧窮線亦會相應上調。除非所有家庭的入息完全一樣,否則必然會有一些家庭落在貧窮線以下,因此社會並沒有完全「脫貧」的可能。

在國際層面上,主要是以聯合國的貧窮線為基礎來討論全球的貧窮情況。聯合國早期以當時全球最窮的6個國家的基本生活費為標準,再以購買力平價的滙率兌換為美元,得到差不多1美元的數值,因此以每人每天1美元收入作為國際的貧窮線。聯合國把這數字在2005年基於15個低收入國家的情況修改為1.25美元,再在2015年按貨幣購買力的下降提高至1.9美元。這些更改並沒有改變貧窮的實質標準,而這貧窮線也是絕對貧窮的概念。

在人類歷史中,經濟增長主要是過去200多年的事。工業革命前的多個世紀,經濟增長差不多微不足道。既然如此,絕大部分人都處於貧窮狀態,貧窮可以說是一個自然現象。但在文藝復興和工業革命之後,經濟增長逐漸出現,再在上世紀下半部以前所未有的速度加快;而由於種種原因,經濟增長的好處並沒有平均惠及每一個國家和個人,因此貧窮就變成一個社會現象,而減貧亦逐漸成為政府政策的一個目標。

農村貧困人口可降

以1.9美元為貧窮線計算,1981年全球有44%人口處於貧窮。聯合國「千禧年發展目標」中的首要目標,正是要在1990年至2015年這25年間,把貧窮人口比例減半。還好,這個目標已經達到——2015年,貧窮人口在全球人口的比例已減至大概11%。這期間全球人口從1981年的45億增加至2015年的74億,所以貧窮人口從20億減到8.3億。這是一個很了不起但卻鮮為提及的成就,直接影響着億萬人的生活。

中國是首個達到貧窮人口減半這個目標的發展中國家。按中國政府制定的農村貧困標準,1978年,貧困人口是7.7億,比例為97.5%,經過差不多40年的改革開放,至2017年底,有關數字已下降至3000萬和3.1%。與國際情況相比,減貧的成就更加驕人。印度在90年代初經濟自由化改革後經濟增長也加快了,貧窮人口從1994年至2012年已減少1.3億。中印兩國大幅度成功減貧的例子,說明經濟增長是減貧的最主要動力。

2015年9月,聯合國成員重新制定17個可持續發展目標,其中第一個目標就是要在2030年在全球消滅貧窮。按過去數十年的經驗,這個目標有可能達到,但也有一定困難。首先是經濟增長和扶貧政策會對那些條件較佳的人較容易產生作用,如住在市區的或已經有基礎教育的人,但進一步對那些條件較差的窮人起到的作用會遞減。

同樣情況亦在國際層面出現。隨着一些國家成功減貧,全球的貧窮人口愈來愈集中在過去減貧成績並不顯著的國家,包括多個撒哈拉以南的非洲國家。有統計指出,四分之一的非洲國家自2008年以來都沒有做過住戶?查。連數字都沒有,遑論採取合適的政策。

中國的目標是在2020年把農村貧困人口減至零。按過去3年每年減1000多萬的速度來看,這個目標應可達到。但這個目標針對的是農村人口。2017年,中國的農村人口已下降至全國人口的42%。隨着進一步的改革和城市化,城市的貧困人口應該成為減貧的主要對象,到時才真的沒有所謂低端人口了。

陸炎輝 香港大學經濟及工商管理學院客席副教授

​(本文同時於二零一八年二月廿一日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)

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