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Home Research Thought Leadership In the Media
QE, Fiscal QE, and MMT

QE, Fiscal QE, and MMT

1 Sep 2021
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QE, 財政QE與MMT

原定上星期在美國懷俄明州傑克森霍爾(Jackson Hole)舉行的全球央行年會,因疫情關係只能和去年一樣以視像方式舉行。美國聯儲局主席鮑威爾在會議中的講話尤為矚目,皆因全球財經界人士都密切關注,他就聯儲局減購債券(tapering)會否提供什麼新的訊息。

聯儲局主席今年的講話特別重要,主要是由於美國的通脹已上升至多年來的新高點,加上聯儲局轄下的公開市場委員會(Federal Open Market Committee)不久前公布其7月份的會議紀錄,文件披露大部分與會者認為,聯儲局可在本年底前開始減購債券,比他們之前的理解為早。此外,在去年的全球央行年會中,鮑威爾推出了美國貨幣政策的新框架,將通脹目標定在平均2%(average inflation targeting),但沒有說明這個平均是按多長時間來計算,以及和2%目標的差距,會在多長一段時間來彌補。經過了通脹上升的一年,市場自然想了解聯儲局如何進一步闡明這個框架。

跟聯儲局的雙重使命(dual mandate)一樣,這個貨幣政策的新框架也包括通脹和就業兩部分。在就業方面,新框架的重點放在低於充分就業的部分。換句話說,若目前就業高於充分就業,聯儲局未必會採取什麼行動。此外,新框架強調就業情況,須以廣泛的、全方位的勞動力市場來理解。因此,即使總體就業情況向好,但若出現「K形反彈」,情況也不算理想。

市場注視美就業

一如所料,鮑威爾在上周的講話中表示,聯儲局可在今年開始縮減購債,但他沒有提供具體的時間表和規模。他亦重申縮減購債不等於加息。即使減購債券,相關的時間和規模都和加息無關。鮑威爾表示,聯儲局的通脹目標已達到,但就業目標是否已達到,則有所保留。充分就業所代表的就業人數,按勞動力市場和經濟狀況而改變,不能像通脹目標一樣,以一個數字來表達。新冠肺炎在去年3月開始肆虐美國,美國的就業人數從去年2月的高峰跌到4月的低谷,減少了2240萬人。即使隨後經濟復甦,今年7月的就業人數仍低於去年2月570萬人。同時,疫情下的經濟復甦並不平均,再加上病毒變種導致的不確定性,都令聯儲局遲遲未能確定何時縮減購債。不過今年6月和7月,美國的就業人數分別增加了90多萬,比之前大半年為多。現時市場的注意力,都放在這個星期五公布的美國8月份就業人數,聯儲局自然也會參考這個重要的數字,以決定下一步政策。

2008年金融海嘯後,聯儲局除了把利息降至近乎零之外,還大量購買政府債券和房貸抵押證券(mortgaged-back securities),即進行量化寬鬆(quantitative easing, 簡稱QE)。新冠肺炎後,聯儲局又迅速加碼重施故伎,令聯儲局的資產由2007年底的0.92萬億元(美元.下同),增加至上月中的8.34萬億元,增加了整整8倍,其中包括了政府債券5.3萬億元和房貸抵押證券2.5萬億元。和這個增幅粗略比較,美國的名義GDP在2007年是14.45萬億元,到2020年達20.94萬億元,也只是增加了45%。另一方面,標普500指數則從2008年1月初的1411點,升至上星期的4500點。多年來的QE導致市場資金泛濫,但向金融活動而非經濟活動傾斜,已經是愈來愈多人的共識。

量化寬鬆太寬鬆

因為新冠肺炎疫情,聯儲局在短期內把資產總值翻了一番。速度之快、規模之大,遠超出金融海嘯後的操作。然而,金融海嘯令美國陷入18個月的經濟衰退,而新冠肺炎所帶來的衰退卻只維持了兩個月。同時,金融海嘯的經濟震盪主要在市場需求方面,新冠肺炎的震盪則同時出現在供應和需求兩方面,但QE並不能紓緩供應方面的困難。換句話說,美國的量化寬鬆做得過於寬鬆了。

事實上,聯儲局也有同樣看法。這一點可以在政府債券的逆回購隔夜市場(over night reverse repurchase agreements)上表現出來。聯儲局逆回購,等於從市場借入資金,並在指定日期償還,也就是暫時減少市場上的資金流通量。這個逆回購的數值,在本年2月初還等於零,但隨後不斷上升,到上周五已達到1.12萬億元 【註1】。聯儲局目前的QE規模是每月1200億元,因此目前的逆回購,抵消了9個月的QE。逆回購到期,聯儲局需要歸還資金時,它可以再作另一輪的逆回購來抵消QE。因此,聯儲局可以表面上不減購債券,令貨幣政策如常,但卻在另一個市場將放出的資金短暫性地收回。

財政QE惹質疑

金融海嘯後的QE把聯儲局的資產總額增加了好幾倍,遠超出之前人們的想像,也增加了不少聯想,似乎央行可以很輕易地大幅度增加貨幣供應和市場資金。既然如此,何不利用這些資金去應付社會和經濟的各種開支?特別是QE並沒有怎樣推高通脹。金融海嘯後,聯儲局在2008年底至2014年10月期間實施了三輪QE,而美國已在2009年6月步出經濟衰退,但由2012至2020年,美國的平均通脹率只是1.4%。當央行購債的最終目的不是進行宏觀調控,而是為某些政策項目提供資金,便構成所謂「財政QE」(Fiscal QE)了。當央行可以大量購買債券來達到一些政策目的時,自然有人提出,為什麼只買這種而不買另一種債券的質疑。

曾在港大經濟系執教、現任美國智庫Cato Institute屬下的Center for Monetary and Financial Alternatives主任George Selgin,去年在他出版的書籍 【註2】 中指出,財政QE的具體方案最早來自英國工黨前領袖科爾彬(Jeremy Corbyn),後者稱之為「人民的QE」(People’s QE)。在美國也有類似的建議,認為聯儲局應該為美國的基礎建設、綠色新政(green new deal)或減少學生債務等項目提供直接或間接的資金。內地也有相關的討論,在去年5月前後以「財政赤字貨幣化」的標題出現。

和財政QE一步之遙的,就是所謂現代貨幣理論(modern monetary theory, 簡稱MMT)。MMT的理論並不深入、謬誤也多,但在最近幾年於媒體上曝光率甚高,主要由於民粹主義的冒起和只看選票的政客。總括而言,MMT認為政府可以發行貨幣,因此政府開支不需要受到任何財政上的限制,可以輕易處理各種經濟問題。當經濟膨脹至資源缺乏、價格上升時,政府可增加徵稅、減少市場的購買力來應付通脹。

還好,目前的QE主要是一般的QE,並非財政QE,更加不是MMT。央行通過QE購買的政府債券,預期會在將來賣出。又或者說,央行並非長期貸款給政府、無需償還。政府因而有需要通過稅收或其他渠道另覓資金。相反,MMT下的央行發行貨幣給政府,並沒有預期政府將來會償還,央行只是政府部門的印鈔機器。

貨幣政策非仙丹

另一方面,QE下的財政政策和貨幣政策仍然分開。政府的開支和稅收,仍需要立法機關通過,因此政府開支仍然有優先次序和如何支付的考慮。在MMT下,財政政策和貨幣政策都混在一起,政府開支完全不用量入為出。

單從經濟分析來看,MMT難以登堂入室,絕大部分的主流經濟學者都認為MMT歪理連篇。但今時今日,連毫無事實根據、違背常理的假消息,只要符合一些人的利益或身份認同,都可以鼓動出預期不到的行為和活動。另一方面,也許人類社會的問題多了,但解決問題的辦法卻沒有增加。央行在有意無意間,被賦予愈來愈多責任,從傳統上處理失業和通脹問題,到防止和解決金融危機,以至減少外貿赤字、應對氣候變化、縮減貧富懸殊及不同種族的經濟差異等等。特別在美國,美元的高度國際化,方便美國以貨幣政策解決問題,或把問題卸到國外。然而,貨幣政策只是一項政策,通常只應該用來集中處理一個問題。若政策能做到一石二鳥,也只是巧合罷了。

 

【註1】:https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/RRPONTSYD

【註2】:George Selgin, The Menace of Fiscal QE(Cato Institute, 2020)

 

陸炎輝 港大經管學院榮譽副教授

(本文同時於二零二一年九月一日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄。)

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