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In the Media

Home Research Thought Leadership In the Media
Japan Ends Negative Interest Rate Policy

Japan Ends Negative Interest Rate Policy

3 Apr 2024
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日本退出負利率政策

日本央行於兩星期前把政策利率提高10個基點,由負0.1至0厘調高到介乎0至0.1厘,結束了實施8年的負利率貨幣政 策,並同時撤銷孳息曲線控制(YCC)政策。日圓匯率和利率的未來走勢,以及日本經濟的表現,隨即成為國際投資 者的關注議題。

上世紀八十年代中後期,日本的貨幣和信貸過度膨脹,形成資產價格泡沫,股市及房地產分別在1989年底及1991年 第三季達到高峰,但隨後泡沫爆破,經濟在1992年及1993年迅速收縮,開始了徘徊在負增長及通縮邊緣的30年。這 些年來,日本央行在貨幣政策上屢出奇招,惟大多無補於事。這些政策包括了量化寬鬆(QE)和上面提及的負利率 及孳息曲線控制等。2008年金融海嘯後,西方主要央行均以QE挽救經濟和金融,但日本央行早在2001至2006年已率 先試行,不過作用有限。金融海嘯後,日本央行又在2010年至2013年作第二次QE,惟效果比之前更差。2012年底 ,安倍晉三第二度出任首相,推出所謂「安倍經濟學」,包括更大力度的QE,初時略有起色,通脹率朝2%的政策目 標移動,然而效果並不持久,至2015年日本又重陷通縮。2016年1月,日本央行政策加碼,在QE之外同時實施負利率 。

瑞典是首個採用負利率的國家,早於2009年啟用,其後丹麥和瑞士亦分別在2012年及2014年實施負利率,主要原因 是該數年間歐羅區出現嚴重的債務危機,投資者由持有歐羅資產改為瑞士法郎和瑞典克朗資產,導致後者貨幣升值 影響出口。負利率的作用就是減少外資流入這些國家的誘因,不過,日本央行和歐央行的負利率政策,卻直接是為 了刺激經濟。實施負利率國家的GDP,一度佔全球GDP的25%,可見負利率政策對全球經濟的覆蓋甚為廣泛。

在通脹沒有被充分預期時,名義利率或會低於通脹率,使實質利率成為負值,這對借方有利,因為將來償還款項的 購買力會因通脹而減少;相反,貸方則因此而受損。這種情況並不罕見,卻不是負利率政策,一來負利率政策指的 是名義而非實質利率,二來是有關利率由政策決定。市場上有各種不同的利率,負利率政策指的是商業銀行在中央 銀行的存款,所獲得的利率是負值,即央行不但不給予利息,還要向商業銀行徵收費用,目的是鼓勵銀行盡量動用 款項,不要把資金閒置在央行的戶口內。銀行可以多貸款給客戶,或在同業市場貸款給其他有資金出路的銀行,又 或購買市場上的金融資產。市場上資金供應多了,其他利率也會下調,甚至變為負值,負利率政策因而傳導至更廣 泛的經濟活動。從資金需求的角度看,借錢不但沒有利息成本,將來償還的數額還可少於現時借入的本金,即使投 資項目的回報率不高,也值得融資承辦。事實上,負利率只是傳統貨幣政策的持續減息至0厘以下,無論利率水平處 於正值或負值區間,下調後都會減輕借方的融資成本。這也是負利率可以拉動經濟的原因。

然而,負利率畢竟是新生事物,加上人們習慣持有的現金面值不變,形成了利率最低為0厘的心理關卡。負利率政策 如何影響銀行和金融穩定,自然引起關注。最直接的問題是,銀行會否把負利率轉嫁至存戶身上,降低存款利息 ,甚至徵收存款費用。若存戶紛紛提款離去,形成去中介化(disintermediation),削弱了銀行體系的貨幣擴張功 能和減少流動性,結果便與採用負利率政策刺激經濟的原意背道而馳。

一般情況下,存戶在銀行的存款即使面對負利率,只要負值不是太大,還不至於大量撤走存款,因為銀行提供了安 全和方便,勝於在家中存放現金。企業存戶的日常經營涉及大量現金流,管理現金的成本高,更難以擺脫銀行存款 的負利率。但無論是個人或企業,都會減少存款餘額以降低負利率的影響,如增加消費或先支付將來必須的開支 (如預繳稅款),又或投資證券,而這些都符合負利率政策的用意。這裏略為引伸,若將來央行數字貨幣取代現金 ,負利率的實施會更為暢順,到時市場上沒有了名義利率永遠0厘的現金作為迴旋,在經濟嚴重衰退時,負利率政策 可將數字貨幣戶口的結餘按時遞減,市場上消費額及投資額自然上升。不過,各國的央行數字貨幣仍在籌劃中,會 否包括負利率條款仍是未知數。

國際貨幣基金組織(IMF)在2021年發表一份研究報告,總結了歐洲多國及日本負利率政策的經驗【註】。報告指出 ,負利率政策有效地降低金融市場利率,特別是政策啟動初期對長期利率的影響。此外,如上文提及,企業存款利 息下跌多於個人存款。銀行方面,貸款額普遍上升,但盈利並沒有嚴重下降。總的來說,負利率政策拉動經濟的作 用和傳統貨幣政策相若。在政策過程中,歐央行的負利率最多是負0.5厘,而日本一直維持在負0.1厘,幅度都不算 大。因此,仍然不清楚的是,負利率政策的力度需多大,才會導致去中介化及其他金融問題。

2021年出現了多年未見的高通脹,帶來急速的加息潮,使一眾實施負利率的歐洲國家紛紛取消有關政策,只有日本 直至兩星期前仍然繼續維持包括負利率等非傳統貨幣政策。事實上,日本的核心通脹已有約兩年時間高於2%,新冠 肺炎疫情後實質GDP維持正增長,日經指數又破歷史高位,早在大半年前,已有不少評論認為,日本有條件回到傳統 的貨幣政策。或許由於過去多次的政策失誤,日本央行繼續靜觀其變,認為通脹或許只因美日息差擴大致日圓貶值 ,以及和俄烏戰爭等帶來的輸入通脹,而非日本經濟的內在動力。至今年3月日本企業和工會進行年度工資談判,結 果工資增幅遠高於預期,基本工資增幅為3.7%,是1991年以來首次超過3%,而平均工資增幅更達5.3%。這增加了日 本央行對工資上升和通脹良好互動的信心,日本也因而走出負利率政策。

日本央行並沒有美國聯儲局般比較清晰的前瞻性政策指引(forward guidance),日本的利率走勢如何,仍在見步 行步,但隨着美國預料下半年開始減息,美日息差收窄的機會甚大,日圓作為利差交易(carry trade)主要貨幣的 角色將會弱化。與此同時,發展中國家在日本發行「武士債券」(Samurai bonds)的利息成本亦會上升。至於日本 經濟,仍然面對着人口老化和龐大公債的困擾。日本政府債務達到GDP的250%多,為發達國家之冠。利率由零轉為正 數,自然構成日本政府財政上的額外負擔,減少了應付人口老化的財政空間。經過了失去的30年,走出負利率政策 ,只是解決經濟困難的新起點而已。

 

【註】https://www.imf.org/-/media/Files/Publications/DP/2021/English/NIRTSESFEA.ashx

 

陸炎輝教授
港大經管學院榮譽副教授

(本文同時於二零二四年四月三日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)

 

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