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In the Media

Home Research Thought Leadership In the Media

Adverse selection in the internet age

24 Jan 2018
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互聯網時代的劣勝

交易雙方擁有的訊息若不對稱,就會產生劣勝優汰(adverse selection):訊息充足的一方,品質愈低愈積極參與交易;缺乏訊息的一方,交易成功拿到手的反而不是好東西。

自由放任問題叢生

一個典型例子是借貸:借方明白自己的還款能力和意欲,但是貸方不清楚。愈是不能或是不願意還款的人,愈積極借款;貸方有見及此,會加倍防範。讀者可能常常收到銀行來電,明明沒有申請貸款,銀行偏偏積極推銷;反而急需借款的人,銀行卻極不情願發放貸款。

其他有嚴重劣勝問題的行業還包括保險、二手車、房屋裝修、團體旅遊、美容美髮、健身、瑜伽,以及的士業。為彌補劣勝對經濟造成的巨大損失,傳統經濟往往以篩選(screening)和發信號(signaling)回應。假如這樣的市場行為無效,就要政府介入,對傳統的士業的管制即屬一例。

世界上絕大部分城市,不論其經濟發展程度,或是否標榜自由經濟,對的士的管制都如出一轍。上世紀七八十年代,英美等國自由放任的經濟思想風行,許多行業掀起解除管制浪潮,亞特蘭大、聖地亞哥、西雅圖等20多個城市,紛紛允許自主營業、自由定價、完全競爭,結果問題叢生,最終都重回管制的老路。

其中的問題是,第一,對乘客而言,價格混亂,車資普遍上漲;有些地方、某些時段無車可叫;司機和服務質量普遍下降。第二,對司機和公司而言,大量無經驗司機湧入,過度競爭導致司機收入減少,營商利潤下降。第三,對社會而言,交通擠塞,空氣質量惡化,交通事故增加。總之,自由競爭導致乘客、業界和社會三方面齊輸。

互聯網經濟、共享經濟的出現,為解決訊息不對稱和劣勝帶來新的機會,網約車即是一例。在網約平台上,每個司機都必須亮出乘客評分,表現差的司機無所遁形,最終勝出的是優質者。但另一方面,互聯網時代入場門檻低、遠距離交易等,亦會助長劣勝。在社交媒體上假新聞和謠言滿天飛,就是新時代的新劣勝。傳統媒體如報紙、電視、雜誌因有人把關,傳播的訊息較為精確。在新媒體中,誰都可製造和傳播新聞,卻無人把關,人人追求嘩眾取寵,劣勝現象非常嚴重。難怪法國立法打擊假新聞。特朗普把所受批評斥為「假新聞」,亦不無道理。

網貸眾籌存在風險

過去的總統比如尼克遜便缺乏這樣的擋箭牌,因為那是傳統媒體的時代,假新聞相對較少。在中國大陸,各大城市都有闢謠的專門網站。自從2016年微信設立闢謠公眾號「謠言過濾器」以來,每天收到上萬條關於謠言的投訴和舉報。《人民日報》2017年歲末的一篇文章,標題就是〈你上當了嗎?〉,列出食品安全、醫療健康,以及熱點話題等類別的10大謠言。所幸香港在這方面不算嚴重。問題是,絕大部分人常在網絡空間活動,其中無分國界,所以在香港也無法避免假新聞的侵擾。

至於網上借貸,更面臨比線下借貸更嚴重的劣勝。以眾籌(crowdfunding)為例,部分項目全靠網上平台,向素未謀面的人籌集資金,顯然有嚴重的訊息不對稱。出資人無從了解收款人的信譽,平台既難以評估項目可行性,亦無法約束收款人,容易出現大量壞賬。

網約車可以克服劣勝,皆因運輸交易涉及的金額小、次數多,不良司機即使偶然得手,亦遲早會被揭破。眾籌恰恰相反,金額大、次數少,不良籌款人或籌款平台收到巨額資金後,即使不至捲款潛逃,亦可坐享其成,而不必盡心經營,這在經濟學上稱為「道德風險」(moral hazard)。

又如網上個體借貸(即P2P網貸),借款人和出資人都是個人,網絡平台只是中介,與Uber平台類似。由於個人借款比公司或項目融資人更難以評估和追蹤,訊息不對稱和劣勝更見嚴重。

截至2017年底,中國內地累計出現5970個同類平台,其中4039個出了問題,比例高達三分之二。像「和信貸」這類在美國上市的公司,業務相對規矩,主要通過調查借款人的背景來進行篩選,根據年齡、職業、手機號碼使用的年限等基本訊息對借款人作出風險評估。但若借款人拒不還款,平台和出資人也無可奈何。至於較不規矩的P2P網貸,則利用借款人的輕信心態,先輕易放款,進而以禁錮、騷擾、威脅(包括發裸照)等非法暴力手段追討,以謀取暴利。

裝修行業現兩極化

建立個人信用評級是解決劣勝的不二法門。在傳統經濟中,收集個人訊息極不方便,個人檔案難以建立。互聯網經濟在這方面提供了契機,網約車就是一例。此外,支付寶根據用戶的消費紀錄、信用歷史、履約行為、本人及朋友身份,構建了「芝麻信用」評分方式。「芝麻信用」分數高,可以享受優惠利率、保費,亦更容易租車、訂房,甚至可免繳押金;求學或求職時更較易獲錄取,甚至更容易找到對象。曾有一段時間,「芝麻信用」超過750分的人,在北京首都機場更可使用快速安全檢查。支付寶通過「花唄」提供個人消費貸款,也依據用戶的信用分數給予不同貸款額度。

傳統經濟中一些行業,也像的士業般有「個人化需求」的特點,也會產生劣勝。比如房屋裝修,公司為顧全商譽,不至過於胡作非為;業主也往往貨比三家,不必像的士乘客般趕忙。

雖然這些因素有助約束不良經營手法,但由於價格未可相比,質量難以界定,劣勝現象仍然極為嚴重,以致出現兩極化現象:有口碑的公司取價極高,而無名公司為求競爭而「將貨就價」,質量極差。

據近來媒體報道,海關收到違反《商品說明條例》投訴增幅最多的一項,就是傢俬、裝修及室內設計,有不良公司以17.5萬元報價做房屋翻新,最終竟要屋主支付79萬元。由於劣勝情況普遍,屋主會為免吃虧而加倍提防,許多裝修公司也難以有穩定生意,造成客戶和業界雙輸。

如此傳統行業,政府並沒有規管,篩選和發信號都缺乏有效渠道。若由政府或業界出面,建立一個統一的交易平台或信用評級體系,讓業主給裝修公司打分,可以一定程度上解決劣勝問題。不過相比的士業,解決裝修業的劣勝會困難許多。網約車有大量閒置司機和車輛可用,信譽好的可以招攬更多生意,但是裝修業務缺乏擴展性(scalability),口碑好的公司,生意做不過來,質量差的公司仍有極大的生存空間。

周文 香港大學經濟及工商管理學院副教授

(本文同時於二零一八年一月廿四日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)

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