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In the Media

Home Research Thought Leadership In the Media

A Discussion on Independence of Central Banks

5 Sep 2018
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談談中央銀行的獨立性

美國經濟目前正處於歷史上第二長的經濟擴張期,失業率亦下跌至7月的3.9%,是差不多50年來的最低點(註:2000年4月失業率同樣低至3.9%)。經濟表現良好,總統特朗普忙不迭歸功於己,但最近亦同時3次公開批評聯邦儲備局把利息提高,指利息上升會威脅到美國經濟的擴張及使美元升值;又說若聯儲局繼續加息,他會繼續批評。

干預聯儲局顯例

美國經濟受到10年前金融海嘯的打擊後,緩步但穩定地復甦。特朗普的上任正值美國經濟的上升期,亦是聯儲局多年量化寬鬆政策後利率正常化的時期。特朗普自2017年1月當總統至今,聯儲局已5次加息,最近兩次更是鮑威爾當聯邦儲備局主席之後,而鮑威爾是特朗普親自決定取代耶倫的人選。

特朗普對聯儲局的批評迅即引起各方面的關注,主要是貨幣政策和央行的獨立性有沒有受到政治的干預。

在眾多的輿論聲中,特朗普說他不喜歡利息上升,但會任由聯儲局做他們認為應該做的事。白宮亦發表聲明,重申總統是支持聯儲局的獨立性的。而鮑威爾則指出,歷史上的幾次政治干預都對經濟帶來長遠的負面影響。

1965年美國仍在越戰期間,時任聯儲局主席馬丁因感到通脹威脅而加息,但總統約翰遜則希望放鬆銀根以刺激經濟。雙方經過多次爭論仍然未果。有報道指約翰遜曾約馬丁到他在得州的牧場再度游說,但以吵架收場,不歡而散。九十年代初美國總統布殊亦與當時聯儲局主席格林斯平有類似爭論,事後布殊曾把競選連任失敗、輸給克林頓歸咎於聯邦儲備局。

要數美國總統干預貨幣政策的著名案例,應該是七十年代初的尼克遜。他1972年競選連任時希望有低息政策來刺激經濟,便委任伯恩斯接替馬丁做聯儲局主席,並同時多次向伯恩斯施壓,甚至造謠說伯恩斯不滿意當時的薪酬。伯恩斯最終讓步調低利率,但寬鬆的貨幣政策導致七十年代美國持續多年的通貨膨脹,至八十年代沃爾克任聯儲局主席後採用緊縮的貨幣政策和付出高失業率的巨大代價後,才成功把通脹馴服。

中央銀行保持政策獨立,不受行政機關干預,主要是防止出現政治性的經濟周期。若總統可以左右央行的決策,便可能在大選年採取擴張性的貨幣政策。蓬勃的經濟通常有利於爭取連任的候選人或其政黨候選人,而經濟過熱的後果則可以在連任後再施行收縮性的政策來處理。可是這樣,經濟便會因為政治原因而增加了波動。

央行的獨立性亦可以減少貨幣政策時間不一致性的的問題。這一點涉及到市民對通脹的預期。若貨幣政策容易受到政治影響,一般人會預期貨幣政策會相對寬鬆,通脹將會上升,因此會提高自己產品的價格和對工資的要求。此時如果央行並不放鬆貨幣政策,經濟便會放緩甚至步入衰退,央行為了防止經濟衰退,便順應市民預期而放寬貨幣政策,但這樣通脹便會如預期一般出現。要減低市民對通脹的預期,便要減少貨幣政策受到政治因素的影響,或央行有相對的獨立性。

最後,央行的獨立性可以防止政府隨意地以發行貨幣來應付財政開支,因而有助於提高財政政策的紀律性。

然而,也有對央行獨立於行政機關提出質疑的。原因之一是貨幣政策涉及所有企業和個人,對經濟有很大的影響,但貨幣政策的制定者卻往往並非市民投票選出,因此缺乏問責性。原因之二是貨幣政策作為一種工具,可以用來針對不同的政策目的,但通常一種政策工具只可以用來達到一種目的。如何取捨不同的目的是一個政治問題。央行若不受到行政機關影響,便難以體現市民的取捨。

美國前財政部長及前哈佛大學校長薩默斯在九十年代初就央行的獨立性做了一項頗受注意的研究,發現1955至1988年間經濟合作及發展組織中的國家,央行的獨立性愈高,該國的通脹率就愈低,而且低的通脹率並非由較高的失業率來導致。他的研究肯定了央行獨立性對通貨膨脹的影響,而通貨膨脹是當時宏觀經濟的一個重要議題。因此,當時大部分的看法都是認同央行應該有高度獨立性的。舉個例子,英倫銀行也是在1997年才獲取一定的獨立性。

央行的良好印象已減弱

然而,到了今天,央行獨立於行政機關這個議題的重要性大大減少。原因之一是許多主要國家面對的問題並非通脹而是通縮。美國、歐洲和日本都是以2%通脹率為政策目標,而達到這個目標亦不容易。歐洲和日本除了量化寬鬆外,還需要採用負利率政策。在這些情況下,根本不用擔心行政機關刻意引導央行作擴張性的貨幣政策。

其次,10年前的金融海嘯減弱了一般人對央行的良好印象。首先是央行沒有及早預防金融危機的出現,其次是危機出現後,央行要幫忙的似乎都是大的金融機構而非小市民。因此央行獨立與否便顯得不太重要,即使有一定的獨立性也不一定把工作做好。

此外,金融海嘯的出現使金融穩定成為一個明顯和重要的政策目的,而維持金融穩定也是很多央行的職責之一。金融穩定很多時候涉及個別的金融部門如房地產或債券市場等。有關這些個別市場的政策往往牽涉其他政府部門。若央行太過超然獨立於政府其他部門,促使金融穩定的政策協調便會受到一定的影響。

特朗普最近對聯儲局的批評雖然在近年美國政壇較為少見,但以他上台後眾多不按本子辦事的做法來看,也不算太令人驚訝。他的批評,可以看作是他對美國經濟的評估和聯儲局有差別而已。但在兩年前的總統競選辯論中,特朗普指當時聯儲局主席耶倫刻意放鬆貨幣政策為他的對手希拉莉創造有利環境。兩次事件對比,不難看出,對他來說,聯儲局的政策是可以隨意被擺布的。

有如此的政客,中央銀行的獨立性便不會成為過時的議題了。

 

陸炎輝 香港大學經濟及工商管理學院榮譽副教授​
(本文同時於二零一八年九月五日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)

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