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HKEJ Column

Home Research Thought Leadership HKEJ Column
The Potential Turmoil of the “Green Swan” in Finance

The Potential Turmoil of the “Green Swan” in Finance

30 Aug 2023
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金融「綠天鵝」的潛在亂局

環顧世界各地,氣候變化導致自然災難頻生,而且破壞力極強,衝擊各行各業,影響經濟穩定,甚至引發金融危機。

大自然警告頻仍

近10年來,全球經濟因氣候變化災難而蒙受的直接經濟損失,估計平均每年高達約1.3萬億美元,相當於世界本地生產總值(GDP)的0.2%左右。2018年加州森林大火的損失為3500億美元,相當於當時美國GDP的1.7%。上月颱風杜蘇芮直襲福建省,亦造成千億元人民幣的損失。

國際貨幣基金組織的專家Felix Suntheim和Jérôme Vandenbussche認為,透過在金融體系中發揮核心作用的股票市場,可分析氣候變化對金融穩定的影響。過去50年內約350次大規模氣候與自然災難中,有10%對總體市場的影響超過14%。例如2011年,泰國水災引發該國股市在40天內大跌30%。

天鵝風險再現

2020年國際清算銀行發表「綠天鵝」報告,指出氣候變化勢將成為衝擊全球金融穩定的重要風險。美國精算師學會(Society of Actuaries)最近期發表的新興風險調查結果顯示,氣候風險由2019至2022年期間,連續4年被視為主要風險之一,可分為「實體」與「轉型」兩種。實體風險是指極端氣候造成生命財產損失,企業成本增加而利潤減少,增加金融業運作的成本與風險。轉型風險則指為了減緩氣候與自然災難的衝擊,各國政府實施減碳政策,將會窒礙高碳排放產業的經營。在企業貸款合約中,高碳排放機器設備作為抵押品的價值將會下降,而提高信用風險;貸款給這些產業的銀行自然首當其衝。

2017年成立的「央行與監管機構綠色金融網絡」(Network for Greening the Financial System;簡稱NGFS),在其2020年的報告中指出,若全球暖化失控,預計2100年實體風險對GDP的損失比率將累計達25%。此外還有許多實體風險無法納入評估,至於海平面上升、天災造成人口遷徙、區域衝突等造成的損失,更尚未納入計算之中。馬爾代夫等島國由於境內80%的陸地面積海拔高度不到1米,因此隨着海平面上升,估計或會在2100年之後完全陸沉。全球暖化亦影響糧食生產,若氣溫增加攝氏2度,熱帶地區小麥或會減產20%。

權衡風險輕重

美國金融企業MSCI在2021年基於不同情景下,評估產業受轉型風險衝擊的程度。例如當溫度增長可控制在攝氏1.5度,高碳排放產業的轉型風險較大,歐洲的能源公司資產價值平均將大減67%,創新的低碳技術產業則會增加18%收入。至於電力公司的資產價值雖然也將跌近六成,但低碳技術亦將為其增加四成收入。

若溫度增長攝氏3度,各國政府的減碳政策或會轉趨消極,轉型風險對各產業資產價值造成的損失便會較小;電力公司的資產價值將減少約兩成,卻因減碳誘因不足,創新科技帶來的新收入也將大幅縮減。以上數據顯示,轉型風險與實體風險是翹翹板的兩端,為迴避轉型風險而不願積極減碳,難免加劇實體風險。

新冠肺炎大流行促使金融業界重新評估系統性風險的代價。根據柏君哲(Michael Baldinger)2020年的分析,疫情與氣候變化有三大共通點。第一,新冠肺炎是一場史無前例的公共衛生災難,世界各國因未能及早防範而備受重創;面對氣候變遷,亦須引以為鑑。第二,疫情突顯在全球化下,複雜的供應鏈面對災難時如何不堪一擊;氣候變化所能產生的系統性風險,同樣足以癱瘓世界經濟。第三,新冠疫情與氣候變化所造成的衝擊雖有緩急之別,但若有關當局應對疫情不力,以致氣候風險失控,後果不堪設想。

模擬式壓力測試

根據國際清算銀行的研究,下一個系統性金融風險可能源自氣候衝擊,因此監管機關有責任要求金融機構評估並揭露其氣候風險。為此,法、英兩國的中央銀行在2021年率先對本國的金融機構和系統啟動氣候變化壓力測試;歐洲各國的有關測試則在2022年展開。至於美國,聯邦儲備局亦於近年成立了相關委員會,擬於2023至2025年要求金融界將氣候變化納入壓力測試。日本央行則推出新的貸款工具,提供資金支持氣候變化的項目。

金融氣候壓力測試實有助於金融機構掌握在極端氣候下,其資產可能蒙受的損失。例如英倫銀行一份報告提及,全英國的房貸物業約有10%處於容易水浸區域,因此建議各銀行查找房貸抵押品位於水浸區的比例,再按災情不同程度預計所涉損失。

美國銀行則以5級颶風來模擬其房地產抵押品可能蒙受的損失。

全方位應對策略

事實上,目前不乏深入探討氣候變化對貨幣政策影響的研究。英倫銀行的巴滕(Sandra Batten)認為,氣候變化將增加通貨膨脹及經濟增長預測的不確定性,影響央行達成貨幣穩定的目標政策。NGFS的研究發現,極端氣候事件發生的頻率與強度增加,將擴大通貨膨脹和金融市場價格的波動性,削弱貨幣政策的執行效果,因而建議把氣候變化風險納入央行貨幣政策,此舉是否適當,各界至今未有定論。鑑於央行貨幣政策工具有限,難以充分覆蓋低碳轉型風險;反觀財政政策和金融監管,因具備較多而富彈性的政策工具,相信更可發揮應對氣候變化之效。

若要準確衡量氣候變化所帶來的金融風險,金融業將面臨4項挑戰:一、分析數十年來各種氣候路徑的影響;二、長期預測有極大的不確定性;三、氣候有地域和產業差異,因果關係各有不同;四、可再生能源等新技術的出現與生活方式的改變。是以金融業必須運用嶄新的分析方法,重新思考氣候數據的管理與分析、商品組合風險、氣候風險情景假設與氣候風險壓力測試,綜合評估氣候變化的衝擊,從而掌握潛在營運風險,相應調整風險控制與營運策略。

面對來勢洶洶的氣候變化,全球金融業須從風險管理的角度制定方針,方能化危為機。正當各地經濟從疫情中陸續復甦,現時正是推動綠色轉型的關鍵時刻。各國政府的提振經濟計劃不妨與相關綠色轉型結合,以負責任投資作為復甦基礎,並進行有助綠色經濟發展的結構性改革。金融業在提供信用流動性的同時,亦應善用金融資源,引導產業邁向環境、社會及管治(ESG)和永續發展。

 

【參考文獻】

Bank for International Settlements (2020), “The Green Swan: Central Banking and Financial Stability in the Age of Climate Change”.

Bank for International Settlements (2020), “Green Swan 2 – Climate change and Covid-19: Reflections on Efficiency Versus Resilience”.

Baldinger, M. (2020), “The parallels between Covid-19 and Climate Change”, UBS Report.

Batten, S. (2018), “Climate Change and the Macro-economy: a Critical Review”, Working Paper No.706, Bank of England.

 

謝國生博士
港大經管學院金融學首席講師

何敏淙先生
香港大學附屬學院講師

(本文同時於二零二三年八月三十日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)

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