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HKEJ Column

Home Research Thought Leadership HKEJ Column
The 70 years Theory of Games

The 70 years Theory of Games

23 Sep 2020
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博弈論 七十年

博弈論由馮諾伊曼(John von Neumann)和摩根斯坦(Oskar Morgenstern)憑二人在1944年出版的巨著Theory of Games and Economic Behavior而奠定基礎,但是真正推動博弈論發展,令其大放異彩而廣受矚目的,當推以數學家納殊(John Nash)為首的少數後來者。他在1950年就合作博弈和非合作博弈發表的兩篇論文,今年適逢70周年,筆者且在這裏對博弈論作有選擇性的介紹,希望能對讀者有所啟發。

囚徒困境

博弈論最家喻戶曉的例子,莫過於「囚徒困境」。舉例說,兩個同學要合作完成一個報告,他們各自可以選擇「勤力」或者「偷懶」,因此有四個可能的結果,對於每一個結果,他們都各有其收穫和成本。扣除成本,便計算到各自的淨利益,這裏且稱之為「盈利」(【表1】)。

表1顯示,從個人的盈利多寡考慮,甲同學覺得偷懶比勤力好,不管對方怎麼做;同樣考慮也適用於乙同學。結果出現了(偷懶,偷懶)這個雙輸的後果,然而(勤力,勤力)才是雙贏。這個例子說明了一個深刻的教訓:當每個人都把自己利益最大化的時候,整體結果可能是很差強人意的,即個人的理性可能導致集體的非理性。亞當斯密在他的《原富論》中,闡述了「無形之手」的概念,即每個人在追求自己的利益時,整體結果會令社會欣欣向榮。囚徒困境達到的結論,卻與之大相逕庭。

以上兩名同學合作所面對的的困惑,也可能出現在兩家公司,以至兩個國家之間。

為什麼把這個處境稱為「囚徒困境」?原因很簡單,這個處境原本是以囚徒為例加以說明:兩名疑犯被捕之後,各自隔離審查,一方承認合謀犯罪,那麼不管對方認罪與否,都可以得到較輕的懲罰;弔詭的是,若雙方都不認罪才是雙贏(雙方的刑罰較輕);若雙方都認罪,彼此的刑罰都較重,那是雙輸!【表2】

若無證據,也就無法知道這兩名被告的確是犯罪分子。表2所展示的,也可以是兩個無辜者面對一場冤案的困惑,各自為了自身(或家人)的安危,選擇承認自己沒有犯過的罪!這個版本最最能突顯這種困境的嚴重性。

怎樣解決囚徒困境?一個廣為討論的方法,是用長期合作來消弭短期機會主義行為,若能放遠目光,考慮到自己偷懶可能會被長期合作夥伴所嫌棄,自然不敢怠慢。

針對這類處境,最簡單的辦法是找一個可靠的合作拍檔。道德情操較高者能遵守諾言,要根據原則去處事,根本不是難事,有幸跟這類人合作,就不會出現囚徒困境。

不對稱均衡

【表3】呈現另一場景,兩個生意對手遇到同一個機會,策略可軟(尋求合作)可硬(獨佔),其中有兩個不對稱的「納殊均衡」(Nash equilibrium),就是(強硬,溫和)和(溫和,強硬),即一方強硬的時候,另一方最優的反應是溫和;一方溫和時,另一方的最優反應是強硬。在兩個均衡之中,強硬一方收穫較高,就是俗語所謂「狹路相逢勇者勝」!

上述情況其實還有第三個均衡,就是雙方均採取混合策略,各以2/3的概率選擇強硬,1/3的概率選擇溫和。先從一方的角度分析,假如對方選擇強硬的概率是2/3,選擇溫和的概率是1/3,那麼一方若選擇強硬的策略,其預期收入將為2/3×(–5)+1/3×20=10/3,若選擇溫和的策略,其預期收入亦為2/3×0+1/3×10=10/3。對他而言,強硬或溫和都無所謂。第二方的考慮也一樣,因此,雙方用以上的概率選擇行為,就是一個均衡。

物種演化的博弈

這個博弈吸引了演化論生物學家的興趣,表3中的內容被賦予另一種解釋。表3中的兩個個體並不是人,而是兩隻飛禽,可能是麻鷹,也可能是鴿子,因此就有四個可能性。麻鷹天性強悍,鴿子則溫和。由於基因所限,鴿子遇到麻鷹會吃虧,收入有所不如,但若遇上另一鴿子,彼此禮讓和平,其盈利自會高於麻鷹遇到麻鷹時的情況。根據這個理解,表3嚴格來說並不是一個博弈,而是對四種可能性的說明,那兩隻飛禽並未有在不同策略之間做選擇。

我們可以合理假設,哪種飛禽盈利較高,其傳宗接代的能力也會較強,在飛禽中的比例就會上升,反之所佔比例就會下降。生物演化當然也會出現偶發的突變,麻鷹誕下小鴿子與鴿子誕下小鷹子,機率同樣微小,卻不等於零。

倘若飛禽中全都是麻鷹,那麼麻鷹每次覓食總會遇上同類惡鬥,其盈利反而不及那些突變產生的鴿子,鴿子就得以繁衍,在飛禽中的比例慢慢上升。同樣道理,倘若飛禽中全都是鴿子,鴿子的盈利,當然低於突變產生的麻鷹的盈利,因此麻鷹得以繁衍,其比例慢慢上升。

因此,雀鳥中全屬同類,都不是穩定的狀態。在一個長期的穩定狀態,兩種飛禽都會存在,雙方比例固定,各自的預期盈利相等,以致繁衍速度一樣。有趣的是,在這個長期穩定狀態中,麻鷹的比例剛好等於2/3,即等於第三個均衡算式中,每人使用強硬策略的概率!

上述兩種不同的處境,一是擁有自由意志的人類,一是單憑基因機械地行動的飛禽,但兩者之間又存在某種神秘的關係,實在值得我們深思。其實,人類的行為也往往毫無意識,純粹基於習慣,而習慣源於教育和生活環境;行為決定收入,收入又影響到人類的繁衍。

「破山中賊易,破心中賊難」

博弈論有助於研究個人的內心掙扎,譬如個人志願難以實行,往往因為抵受不住眼前誘惑等。若把內心掙扎理解為兩個利益不同的個體之間的衝突和互動,博弈論就大派用場,可藉以了解強制性退休金制度的利弊,或設計戒酒戒毒的方案等。

古希臘英雄奧德修斯在特洛伊戰爭之後和同伴乘船回希臘,途中來到一個有精靈出沒的海灣,其迷惑人的歌聲,足以令途經該處的船員遭遇滅頂之災。他於是把每個船員的耳朵塞住,不讓他們受到歌聲的迷惑。奧德修斯不僅塞住雙耳,還綁起雙手,以免抵受不住慾望而拿掉耳塞。

這個故事正反映出奧德修斯的內心掙扎好比一分為二的兩人博弈,其中憑理智採取的預防措施,終於克服易受誘惑的弱點,從而化解一劫。同一個人,其實內心往往有兩個「我」,在正常情況下的我,要經常保持覺醒,以免受另一個我支配。能以奧德修斯為榜樣,才可遠離許多麻煩。

納殊在1950年發表了那兩篇文章,博弈論自此取得長足發展,有助我們對經濟、政治、社會,自省的種種現象,作出系統的分析。從囚徒困境的概念可見,當每個人哪怕是用合法方式追求最大化的私利,整體後果卻可能極不理想。這種窘境可以通過建立長期關係克服;社會上法治精神和道德情操的提高,也有助防止囚徒困境的出現。麻鷹和鴿子的博弈反映教育和生活環境的結果,教育的重要性也就不言而喻。

明代理學大師王守仁就說過:「破山中賊易,破心中賊難。」要節制這個心中賊子,就要知道他的存在,以及其作息規律,須靠平日訓練有素,練就自省能力,更須避免目空一切,自以為是,免受制於另一個自我。

參考文獻

John F. Nash, Jr, “Equilibrium points in n-person games”, PNAS, 36(1): pp. 48–49, 1950.

John F. Nash, Jr, “The Bargaining Problem”, Econometrica, 18(2): pp. 155–162, 1950.

John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern, Theory of Games and Economic Behavior, Princeton University Press, 1944.

表1    兩名同學合作完成報告的囚徒困境

註:方格內左面數字是甲同學的「盈利」

表2    兩名疑犯之間的囚徒困境

註:數字為刑期,刑期愈短愈好

表3    強硬和溫和的博弈

註:數字為盈利

趙耀華 港大經管學院副教授

(本文同時於二零二零年九月廿三日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄。)

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