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HKEJ Column

Home Research Thought Leadership HKEJ Column

Remarkable Mechanism Design in Auction

16 Jan 2019
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慣用的拍賣招標 非凡的制度設計

拍賣和招標是十分尋常的交易方式,通常由賣家採用,尤其是當賣家不能確定售價,如政府拍賣、土地招標等。拍賣和招標用在私人交易也很普遍,如古董、藝術品拍賣;網上拍賣的方式更普及至幾乎任何商品。

拍賣和招標的大原則同是價高者得,主要分別在招標以暗標進行,而拍賣則由買家公開出價;此分別對買家的出價行為產生明顯影響,可以用對策論(Game Theory)加以分析。

常用的招標以暗標方式進行,價高者得,繳付入標價後就完成交易;如此招標方式的學術名稱是「首價招標」(first-price sealed-bid auction)。

常用的拍賣方式,通常先由賣家開價,然後由買家提價競逐,直至所有買家不再提價為止。拍賣也是價高者得,繳付最後出價後就完成交易,此種拍賣形式又稱為「英式拍賣」(English auction)。

以對策論分析英式拍賣和首價招標,一個標準的假設是:不同買家對同一件拍賣品的價值可以不同,而每個買家的價值是主觀的,不受其他買家影響,此即所謂「私人價值」(private value)。買家只知自己的私人價值,而不知其他買家的私人價值(unknown value)。

出價策略的對比

根據以上假設,買家在英式拍賣的出價行為可推斷如下:只要其他買家的叫價低於自家的私人價值,則此買家仍會繼續提價競逐,直至其他買家叫價升至或超逾其私人價值水平,或所有其他買家不再與之競逐為止。若所有買家的出價行為如此,英式拍賣則最終以最高私人價值的買家成功勝出,而以次高私人價值(second highest private value)為成交價。

接着分析買家在首價招標的出價行為,首先考慮入標價。若買家以低於其私人價值入標;中標的話,就得到正淨價值(因其所付出的入標價為成交價,低於他的私人價值);否則就無價值可言。

另一方面,買家會否以自己的私人價值入標?一旦中標,其所得淨價值就等如零(因其私人價值成為成交價)。若不中標,則亦無價值可言。由此可見,以私人價值入標,既然一定不及以低於私人價值入標划算,所以是「下策」(dominated strategy)。同一道理,以高於私人價值入標,亦為下策(甚至是下下策);下策可置不論。

至於入標價應低於私人價值多少,這方面的分析則較為複雜,因為調低入標價雖可增加中標後淨價值,卻會減低中標機會,當中取捨須把問題量化,方能得出具體答案。量化有關問題涉及統計學上的分布(distribution)和數學上的微分方程(differential equation),不在本文討論範圍之内。

然而就算不考慮具體答案,也可得出以下結論:買家在英式拍賣和首價招標的出價行為很不同。買家在英式拍賣可謂「如實呈報」(truth telling),亦即同場除最高私人價值的買家以外,其出價如實呈現其私人價值。相反,買家在首價招標卻不會如此「如實呈報」,其出價總低於其私人價值。既然買家的出價行為受拍賣或招標形式影響,能否設計出一種制度,令所有買家出價「如實呈報」?

次價招標的妙處

William Vickrey(1996年諾貝爾經濟學獎得主)提出「次價招標」(second-price sealed-bid auction),又稱「Vickrey招標」(Vickrey auction)。與首價招標一樣,次價招標依然以暗標進行、價高者得,但Vickrey從中作出以下改動:中標者(即最高入標價買家)只需付次高入標價(second highest bid)完成交易。

表面上,Vickrey招標好像是慷賣家之慨,為甚麼不向中標者收取最高入標價?但問題卻非如此簡單,因為招標制度可以影響買家行為,所以要先了解買家如何在Vickrey招標出價。

首先,買家以私人價值入標而中標的淨價值不再是零,因為他繳付的是次高入標價(低於他的私人價值)。正因如此,就算他降低入標價而仍然中標,其所得的淨價值也是一樣,但降低入標價或會令他中不了標,所以低於私人價值入標也一定不及以私人價值入標,是為下策。

很明顯,如果以私人價值入標而中標,提高入標價沒有好處;所以只需考慮以私人價值入標而不中標,在提高入標價後而中標的情況。以私人價值入標而不中標,代表私人價值低於最高入標價;在提高入標價後而中標,則代表之前最高入標價變成現在次高入標價。在此情況下,中標者的私人價值低於次高入標價,得到負淨價值,比不中標還差。由此可見,以高於私人價值入標,也一定不及以私人價值入標,亦屬下策。

無論以低於或高於私人價值入標,都不及以私人價值入標,以私人價值入標成為Vickrey招標的「上策」(dominant strategy)。以上推論適用於Vickrey招標的所有買家。雖然Vickrey招標只收取次高入標價,但不代表它慷賣家之慨,因為買家把入標價提高至私人價值。

Vickrey略加改動,把首價招標改為次價招標,便把本來是下策的以私人價值入標變為上策,令所有買家(包括最高私人價值的買家)以「如實呈報」方式出價,比英式拍賣更勝一籌。

Vickrey如此設計出一個「如實呈報」的招標制度,讓制度設計者得悉參與者的私人價值,是重大的突破,而為一門新學問—制度設計學(Mechanism Design) —奠下基石。制度設計學的發展已經十分成熟,應用廣泛,不再限於拍賣和招標制度設計,範圍延伸至市場設計、網絡經濟學及各種相關用途,甚至在經濟學範疇以外的科目,如電腦工程學和電腦科學等。

程騰歡 香港大學經濟及工商管理學院副教授
(本文同時於二零一九年一月十六日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)

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