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HKEJ Column

Home Research Thought Leadership HKEJ Column

Framing effects and the style of Carrie Lam

31 Jul 2019
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「表述效應」與林鄭風格

行為經濟學中,有一理論名為「表述效應」(framing effects)。此理論由Daniel Kahneman和Amos Tversky所創(Kahneman是2002年諾貝爾經濟學獎得主之一;很可惜,Tversky早於1996年已經去世),經典例子是他們提出的「亞洲疾病問題」(Asian disease problem):試想像某國正為一種異常亞洲疾病爆發作準備,預計此疾病將導致600人死亡。以下是兩個可考慮的應對方案:
•    如果採用方案一,將有200人得救。
•    如果採用方案二,600人得救的概率是三分之一,而無人得救的概率是三分之二。

他們就以上兩個方案進行意見調查,結果絕大多數受訪者選擇方案一。
然後向另一組別參與者重複以上意見調查,兩個方案改為:
•    如果採用方案甲,將有400人死亡。
•    如果採用方案乙,無人死亡的概率是三分之一,而600人死亡的概率是三分之二。

他們指出方案甲和方案一所描述的後果相同,方案乙和方案二的後果亦一樣;但在聚焦預期死亡人數的方案甲和乙之間,絕大多數受訪者都選擇方案乙,和第一組別的調查結果剛好相反!

根據以上結果,Kahneman和Tversky提出「表述效應」理論,指出一般人對某一件事的看法,很容易受該事件如何被表述所影響。

「表述」掩人耳目
「表述效應」不單止可用來理解經濟行為,也可以應用到公共政策方面;如政府推動政策時強調政策的好處,爭取公衆支持。反對派卻把公衆視線轉移至政策的壞處,令政府不能成功推動對他們不利的政策。現在令人擔憂的反對修訂《逃犯條例》(俗稱「反送中」)運動,便是一個很清晰的例子。

嚴格來說,Kahneman和Tversky的「亞洲疾病問題」用了兩種「表述效應」。第一種「表述效應」是「同一個」意見調查,經過巧妙的不同表述,可得出截然不同的結果。後來有人指出方案甲其實和方案一並不相同,原因是「將有400人死亡」不等於「將有200人得救」,例如另外200人可能變成植物人。

第二種「表述效應」是兩位學者巧妙地把兩個不同方案(方案甲和方案一)表述為「同一個」方案。第二種「表述效應」應用較少,因為它比較難用;此點可用以下例子解釋。
加工肉類可被形容為「90%無脂肪」或「10%脂肪」。對一般消費者而言,「90%無脂肪」的敍述比「10%脂肪」吸引,這是第一種「表述效應」。第二種「表述效應」是把近似但不同的加工肉類形容為同樣吸引。雖然「(90 + X)%無脂肪」的加工肉類比「90%無脂肪」吸引,但把「(90 + X)%無脂肪」形容為「(10 – X)%脂肪」會引致該加工肉類吸引力下降。要符合第二種「表述效應」,「(10 – X)%脂肪」的效果需要等同於「90%無脂肪」的敍述。

第二種「表述效應」的應用比第一種難,因為需要準確量化X的數值,而數據充足與否是基本的要求。由此可見,應用第二種「表述效應」不能單靠直覺判斷;現在的「反修例」運動正是一個現成例子。

民意不可迴避
「反修例」運動原本只有一個訴求:要求特首林鄭月娥撤回修訂《逃犯條例》草案。林鄭由起初完全漠視民意到後來「暫緩」該草案,意圖把「暫緩」修例演繹成「撤回」修例,屬於第二種「表述效應」。

林鄭在6月15日宣布特區政府決定「暫緩」修例。首先,「暫緩」和「撤回」在意義上有明顯分別。「暫緩」的意思含糊不清,更可以是短暫安排,不排除特首可以隨時恢復修例。相比之下,「撤回」比較實在,政府必須從立法會撤回該草案,有實際行動。「暫緩」修例不足以回應「撤回」修例訴求不難理解。

一天後,林鄭回應遊行,聲明已停止修例工作。政府消息指「停止」修例和「暫緩」修例沒有分別,更交代重推無期,估計今屆立法會會期(明年7月結束)不會提上立法會,等同「自然死亡」,效果與撤回修例差不多。

以上的演繹,進一步指出「暫緩」/「停止」和「撤回」的主要分別。「撤回」是即時性的,即時回應訴求,乾淨利落。「暫緩」/「停止」始終存在變數,要等到一年後才會「自然死亡」,拖拖拉拉。有云「政治一日都嫌長」,何況是一年?認為一年後自然死亡與(即時)撤回修例差不多的人,真可謂「差不多先生」。

7月9日,林鄭宣布修例工作已經「壽終正寢,the bill is dead」。客觀上,這條修例草案「壽終正寢」,效果等同撤回修例。然而「表述效應」是主觀的,林鄭再一次失敗,「壽終正寢」不被接納為回應撤回修例的訴求。

林鄭的連串失敗不難理解,如果她真心相信「暫緩」/「停止」修例、「自然死亡」、「壽終正寢」全部等同「撤回」修例,那為何不直接用上「撤回」字眼?難度她認為說服數以百萬計的市民比說服她自己容易?

學生常常問我答案是否愈複雜愈好。我對他們說,如果他們能夠用簡單的方法解決問題,一定比用較複雜的方法好。事實上,想出簡單方法解決問題是社會進步之源;特首有責任推動社會進步,而不是為社會製造問題。

最後,我不認為修訂《逃犯條例》毫無道理;它有壞處,也有好處。如果日後修例對社會整體有利,獲得社會普遍支持,我寄望政府能夠肩負責任,重推修例,正面回應社會訴求。

程騰歡 香港大學經濟及工商管理學院副教授
(本文同時於二零一九年七月三十一日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)

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