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HKEJ Column

Home Research Thought Leadership HKEJ Column
Behavioural Economics on Risk Aversion and Gambling

Behavioural Economics on Risk Aversion and Gambling

24 Apr 2024
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行為經濟學對趨吉避險和博彩的闡釋

以色列裔美國心理學家、暢銷書《快思慢想》(Thinking, Fast and Slow)的作者卡內曼(Daniel Kahneman)在本年3月27日離世,享年90歲。他與心理學家特沃斯基(Amos Tversky)通過實驗研究,將認知心理學的觀點與經濟學理論結合,為傳統經濟學無法解釋的行為提供了新解釋,成為行為經濟學領域的先驅。

卡內曼的研究深刻透徹,革新了人們對於決策、風險評估和心理預期的理解,貢獻良多;2002年因而榮獲諾貝爾經濟學獎,而他的研究夥伴特沃斯基則因早逝而緣慳諾獎。

不甘損失 賭徒心態

1979年,上述兩位學者共同提出廣為人知的展望理論(Prospect Theory)。即使大部分人都會盡力規避風險,有時仍會選擇冒險;卡內曼如何詮釋這個現象呢?試想像面對以下兩個遊戲的選項:

遊戲1

A.立即獲得500元

B.「擲公字」:「公」可獲獎金1000元,「字」則無獎。

你會怎樣選擇呢?

遊戲2

先給你1000元,然後讓你考慮以下兩個選項:

C.即時損失500元

D.「擲公字」:「公」就損失1000元,「字」則毫無損失。

這次你又會怎樣選擇?

這兩個遊戲在數學上本質相同。「遊戲1」規定你在兩個選項中任擇其一:A)肯定可得500元,或B)獲得1000元或0元的概率同為50%;「遊戲2」同樣要你二選一:C)肯定可得500元(1000元-500元),而D)獲得1000(1000元-0元)或0元(1000元-1000元)的概率同為50%。

既然遊戲本質一致,按道理選擇也應該一致(在「遊戲1」選A的話,在「遊戲2」就會選C),但事實並非如此。大部分人在「遊戲1」會選A,基於迴避風險而選擇確實回報;在「遊戲2」卻會選D,亦即選擇風險而迴避確實回報!

結果如此,皆因兩個遊戲的表述方式有異:一個強調得益,一個強調損失,以致影響我們看待問題的角度。面對蒙受損失的風險時,一般人往往不惜打賭,以免賠錢;從中亦可探討賭徒心態。

一名賭徒在賭場「買大細」連續贏了5局,他想今天必定是時來運到,買什麼中什麼,接下來加注押了「大」。豈料這局開圍骰,輸個清光,還賠了一點。他心生不忿,心想只要借點錢把剛賠出去的賺回來,也就馬上收手,結果又賠個清光。賭徒連續5局僥幸贏錢固然飄飄然,但隨後一局賠了些錢,在怕輸心理(loss aversion)影響下,必須贏回來才收手離場。

展望理論解釋了人們難以忍受損失的心理,損失愈大,愈傾向冒險(risk-seeking)。一項研究發現,在香港的強積金投資中,供款人傾向選擇較高風險的投資組合,原因正是他們認為薪金被迫放進強積金戶口,直至退休之後才能取回,實在是一種損失【註1】。

博彩收入 有利公益

現今社會除了透過徵稅支持公共服務運作外,政府或慈善服務團體亦會以博彩為收入來源。人們一般不願意投資公共服務,一旦這些服務被設立,人人都能夠使用(如國防、治安),每個人於是都傾向等待其他人去投資,讓自己可免費享用服務。

另一些對社會發展至關重要的服務(如教育),有些人因無緣享用而不願投資。透過博彩收入的做法能夠吸引社會大眾參與,同時為這些公共服務提供必要的營運資金。

自1980年代以來,美國一些地方政府已開始引進和設立樂透(Lotto)為公共服務籌募部分資金。加州在1984年設立有關賭博的條款(California State Lottery Act of 1984),2010年作出修訂後,規定最少87%博彩收入必須回饋社會,包括資助公共教育開支。自1985年起,博彩已為當地公立學校累計提供超過415億美元。

在香港,賽馬會作為最大的博彩事業經營者,每年透過賽馬會慈善信託基金開展公益項目和舉辦慈善活動。事實上,透過經營賭博事業為公共或慈善服務籌款的做法,可從行為經濟學角度加以解讀。以港人關注的六合彩為例,這種樂透形式的博彩非常簡單易明。六合彩的獎金池(金多寶)累積投注,若沒有人中獎,就會累積至下一期,直至有人中獎。

六合彩為何受到大眾歡迎?同樣可透過展望理論加以解釋。由於獎金池透過投注額增加而累積,當累積獎金愈高,就愈能吸引更多人投注,形成良性循環。每多一名投注者,自然會減少每名中獎者所瓜分的預期獎金,但人們往往將重點放在龐大的獎金金額,而忽略極低的中獎機率。這種高估自己中獎機率的現象,亦可透過表述效應(framing effect)分析:大眾接收有關六合彩的資訊時,只會收到有關獎金金額,以及又有人中獎的消息。在考慮是否投注時,基於中獎頻率高和獎金金額大的訊息,於是認為自己亦會中獎。如此,經營六合彩能夠帶來龐大收入,且足以資助公共服務的部分成本。

了解人性 妙用無窮

在公共政策上,行為經濟學的理論在近年亦被廣泛應用。其中「輕推理論」(Nudge Theory)在新冠肺炎疫情期間,被用於鼓勵民眾注射疫苗。所謂「輕推」,即透過改變人們對事情的看法,引導他們作出特定行為或選擇。在美國,地方政府會以發送短訊方式提示民眾接種疫苗;有研究發現【註2】,與其他純粹提示或利用從眾心理的訊息相比,內含「已為你預留疫苗」的訊息更能有效推廣疫苗注射。

另一個廣被採用的理論為「預設選項」(default option)。強積金計劃提供的投資選項五花八門,一般人要完全了解及細加分析十分費時,以致最終選擇無助於累積財富,甚至錄得虧損。預設選項為人們簡化問題,從而避免因錯誤選擇而造成損失。

此外,預設選項亦被用於鼓勵市民參與計劃或活動,例如在部分沒有強制市民參與退休儲蓄保障的地區,先預設市民同意參與計劃,反而不願意參加者則須另行申請。此一做法無疑縮短市民作出重要及複雜決定的時間,減少延誤。

特沃斯基和卡內曼都已先後離世,但兩人針對人性方面的發現,早已打下堅實的理論基礎,行為經濟學家於近年研究中,在傳統經濟學理論的相關範疇更上層樓。

2017年,諾貝爾經濟學獎得主塞勒(Richard Thaler)進一步結合心理學與經濟學理論,以分析人的決策和行為,並進行實證研究,大大促進了行為經濟學的發展,令此一領域重登諾貝爾獎的國際舞台。上述研究除了增進經濟學理論解釋社會現象的可靠性之外,亦為經濟學研究另闢蹊徑。

 

【註1】: 參見https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v10n6p205

【註2】: 參見https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.2101165118

 

趙耀華教授
港大經管學院經濟學榮譽副教授

劉彥彰先生
港大經管學院本科生

吳兆康先生
港大經管學院本科生

 

(本文同時於二零二四年四月二十四日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)

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