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In the Media

Home Research Thought Leadership In the Media

Why should we regulate public transport?

30 Oct 2019
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為什麼要管制公共交通?

近日特首施政報告提出種種惠民措施,好幾項涉及到公共運輸,例如減免公共巴士的隧道收費,斥公帑翻新渡輪以及開闢新的離島渡輪航線等。大米、豬肉、手機也同樣與民生息息相關,為什麼單單補貼公共交通?

香港奉行自由經濟,政府對商業運作干預很少。除了環境、安全等方面的規定之外,對於價格及營運,一般都不加限制。例如智能手機、電腦、汽車、房屋,乃至大學開辦的工商管理學碩士課程,銷售者或運營商都可自行定價及營運,不受任何限制。公共交通則不然,無論是小巴、大巴、的士,抑或地下鐵路、渡輪,營運商均無權自行定價,須獲政府批准。營運方式也有限制,如在沒有政府發出許可證的情況下,使用自己的私家車取酬載客(即所謂「白牌車」),就是違法行為,可被檢控及罰款。政府所以要補貼公共交通,恰恰因為這個行業平常受政府管制。那麼,為什麼需要對公共交通進行管制?

交通運輸與自然壟斷
經濟學理論認為,在一定條件之下,自由競爭可導致社會福利最大化。價格自行浮動,難道不擔心不法商販欺詐顧客、牟取暴利嗎?其實只要資訊透明,消費者自會知所抉擇,選取價廉物美的商家;欺詐者雖得逞於一時,卻難以長久。同時,如果某一行業、市場獲利豐厚,自有其他商家蜂湧而至,市場競爭必然導致價格下降,讓消費者受益。總之,只要允許商家自由進入,價格自由浮動,眾多消費者與多家商戶博弈的結果,就是合理的價格和理想的質量。政府對自由市場的干預,例如租金管制等,往往導致弊病叢生,這在世界各地早有明證。

公共交通與運輸有其特殊性,如果放任行業自由運作,會產生許多問題,所以各國、各個城市都要對其進行管制,至少在過去一二百年來都是如此。十九世紀末,美國的鐵路行業蒸蒸日上。對營運鐵路而言,最大的成本是鋪設鐵軌;一旦軌道鋪成,運輸成本相對較低。如果某地只有一家公司運作,它可以收取很高的價錢,賺取巨額利潤。這樣的的盈利前景將吸引大量資金,幾乎每個地方都會有多家公司鋪設路軌,相互競爭。1882年,美國境內鐵路網一共長達九萬多英里,競爭導致鐵路公司彼此壓價。按照經濟學理論,鐵路投資屬於固定成本,同時也是沉沒成本(sunk cost),對定價沒有影響;在競爭之下,只要價格高過邊際成本(marginal cost),營運商就願意接受。因為邊際成本很低,競爭常常導致運費低廉,雖然客戶受益於一時,但隨之而來的惡性競爭,令許多公司因虧本而倒閉。及至1900年,全美半數鐵路都是由破產法院接管。

鐵路運輸是典型的自然壟斷(natural monopoly)行業,需要建設一個實體的網絡,固定資本投資巨大。從生產與服務的供應來看,鐵路網絡不應該重複,應由一家公司營運。如果准許企業自由進入,容易導致惡性競爭,價格波動巨大,各企業難以共存。再者,服務不穩定,用戶也受影響。有見及此,最好由政府發出營運許可證,只允許一家公司合規經營。在現代經濟中,如此獨家經營的方式亦適用於長途電話、有線電視、互聯網光纖網絡,以及水、電、煤氣等公共設施。

巴士運營與規模經濟
當今許多國家的基礎設施(如公路、隧道、電力、食水等)基本上由政府來建設及提供,在一定程度上已減輕過度競爭的問題。但是自由放任的結果仍然很不理想,航空、郵政、城際客運、貨運、公共交通等服務都屬於這一類。假設兩家巴士公司服務同一條線路,一前一後兩輛巴士,每輛載客只得一半,從社會成本來說是一種浪費。如果把兩輛巴士上的乘客合併到一輛,省下來的一輛車可行走其他線路。經濟學上稱之為規模經濟(economies of scale),即較大的服務量可分攤固定成本。一輛巴士駛出,不管乘客數量多少,總成本(包括司機工資、巴士折舊、燃料費用等)基本不變;服務的乘客愈多,每個乘客的平均成本則愈低。其實上述需要巨額基礎設施投資的行業,也是規模經濟的一種表現方式。有強烈規模經濟的行業,應該只允許一家公司營運。至於挑選哪一家公司,需要滿足什麼條件,則由政府來規定、管理、監督。

傳統的士與劣勝
傳統的士行業,雖然是面向大眾,嚴格來說並不屬於公共運輸,因為每次服務不過一名或幾名互相認識的乘客,無法把去同一個目的地的陌生人合併到同一輛的士內。如此說來,規模經濟並不存在,為什麼仍然需要管制?這就涉及到管制的另外一個原因:資訊不對稱(information asymmetry)。的士提供的是點對點個人化運輸服務,由於每一次的服務並不相同,乘客很難知道什麼是合理價格。一旦上車,自然任人宰割;司機為一己私利,或是繞路,或是漫天要價。去陌生城市的旅客,估計都碰到過的士宰客的經歷。相比之下,生活中絕大部分的產品和服務是標準化的,又有大量重複消費。電影只看一次,手機、汽車也不會重複購買,可是在網上、聊天室有大量評價,如果惡評如潮,產品自然難以保持銷路。就算在沒有互聯網的年代,缺乏有效的消息傳播渠道,以致消費者無法預先知道價格、質量是否合理,他們仍然可以通過自己的重複購買以獎優懲劣。假如某個餐館或某種牙膏價格過高,或是消費以後發現質量低劣,消費者下一次就不會再去光顧、購買。在這些例子裡,每樣產品相對標準化,銷量甚大,有關價格、質量的訊息足以保證優者勝出,所謂「跑得了和尚跑不了廟」。相比之下,的士行業基於資訊不對稱的問題,如果任由市場自由競爭,結果是劣者勝出。解決辦法就是由政府來釐定一個標準定價,並相應控制的士數量,限制競爭者自由進入市場。

這一邏輯立刻就有兩個推論。第一,歷史上的馬車、黃包車在街頭供人租用(讀者對老舍的小說《駱駝祥子》大概有一定印象),幾乎與現代的士無異,自由競爭應該同樣難以發揮作用,同樣需要政府管制。果不其然,早在1654年馬車正式在倫敦和威斯敏斯特營運時,已受到政府管制。1874年,法國商人米拉(Menard)首次將在日本流行的人力車引入上海,法租界公董局在批准其營運的同時,也規定了人力車的數量及收費。第二個推論是,商務車的租賃不需要管制,原因是這種服務相對標準化。首先,交易不是在街頭隨機完成。其次,這不是一般市內點到點的運輸服務,而是以時間計(一天或幾天),或是從一個城市到另一個城市,可見商務車的租賃是標準化的服務,並且往往是重複消費,具備足夠資訊讓消費者判斷收費、質量是否合理。在這個大前提之下,市場競爭的結果是優者勝出,不需政府插手。

周文 香港大學經濟及工商管理學院副教授

(本文同時於二零一九年十月三十日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)

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