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In the Media

Home Research Thought Leadership In the Media

Who could challenge US Dollar’s Dominant Role in International Market?

4 Apr 2018
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美元地位誰與爭鋒?

隨着發展中國家特別是中國和印度的經濟增長,二次大戰後以美國為主導的國際經濟秩序已逐漸蛻變。過去一年多,特朗普上台更加快了這個變化。在現屆美國政府眼中,自由貿易被視作對美國的不公平貿易,而貿易協定則被視為外國在美國獲利的合法依據。然而,數十年來,在世界經濟體系中美元所享受的超然地位和隨之而來美國得到的利益,美國政府則少有提及。

單一貨幣主導存在風險

美元的國際地位在布列頓森林會議中正式確立,即使該會議所建立的制度已於40多年前瓦解,美元的地位仍一直維持到今天。作為主要國際貨幣的直接好處是鑄幣稅,美國聯邦儲備局以些微的印刷費發行美元,便可用這些美元買外國的商品。外國若用這些美元買回美國的商品,那些美元便回流本土,談不上很大程度的國際化;同時,因為美國分別進口和出口相同價值的商品,在外貿上是收支平衡。不過,若外國繼續持有那些美元,便等於美國可以極少的印刷費用,換來貨幣面值的商品,這兩者的差別便是所謂鑄幣稅,但在這個情況下,美國的貿易收支紀錄便呈現赤字。

再進一步說,外國會不會繼續持有那些美元,視乎有沒有適合的以該貨幣定價的金融資產。因此,貨幣的國際化與該國金融市場的發展有密切的關係,亦會在一段時間內導致外貿逆差。

10年前源於美國席捲全球的金融風暴,顯示了國際經濟由單一貨幣主導的風險,中國即藉此機會加快推出人民幣國際化,以減少對美元的依靠。簡單來說,貨幣國際化就是促進貨幣的3個功能跨境行使,包括在海外以這種貨幣作買賣定價和支付,並以這種貨幣投資保值。

人民幣國際化的步伐很快,於短短數年間,以人民幣定價和支付的貿易佔中國外貿百分比快速上升,最高曾經達到35%。此外,在香港、倫敦、新加坡等離岸市場的人民幣存款和債券也增長很快。

中國於上周一在上海國際能源交易中心開啟原油期貨市場,並以人民幣為原油期貨合約定價,這可以說是一個里程碑,為人民幣國際化提供一個新的突破口。石油可以說是國際貿易中最重要的單一商品,多年來均以美元定價,若其中一部分改為人民幣,兩種貨幣的需求此消彼長,會大大鞏固人民幣在國際交易中的地位。

中國的石油消費約佔全球的12%,而去年又取代美國成為全球最大的石油進口國,因此有一定的市場能力去改變原油定價的貨幣。事實上,有報道說,3年前已有俄羅斯石油公司接受中國買方以人民幣支付她的石油產品,而中國目前又與沙地阿拉伯和安哥拉等商討以人民幣進口她們的石油。

即使這樣,在目前國際交易中,人民幣佔的比例仍是很小,與美元相距甚大。按國際結算銀行2016年4月的調查,在所有外幣兌換交易中,美元佔87.6%,歐羅為31.3%,而人民幣則只有4%。

此外,根據2016年12月的數據,在國際支付商品和服務中,美元佔42.1%,歐羅為31.3%,而人民幣則只有1.68%。人民幣這個數字在2015年8月曾經達到2.79%的高峰,使人民幣成為全球第四大支付貨幣,但這個比例隨後下滑,大抵是該年8月中人民幣突然貶值改變了市場預期的緣故。

這顯示宏觀經濟政策的制定和實施,對貨幣國際化的重要影響。事實上,自那次貶值後,人民幣的走勢趨於不明朗,大大減慢了人民幣資產在離岸市場的增長。以香港的人民幣存款為例,2015年7月的數量差不多10000億,現在則只有5500億。

一般來說,作為國際貨幣的條件,包括該國有相當大的經濟規模、在國際貿易中佔一定的比重、實施合適的宏觀經濟政策、金融體系有規模、深度和開放、該貨幣可與其他貨幣兌換等。對人民幣而言,前兩個條件早已具備,但其他的則有待發展。

日憂圓滙升值影響出口

國際交易和國內交易一樣,以現金支付的比例很少,多數交易都要通過銀行體系的結算,而銀行之間的結算最終會涉及中央銀行。為了方便這些結算從而促進經濟活動,中央銀行都會持有外國貨幣,也就是所謂外滙儲備。可以說,貨幣國際化最高階段是成為主要的儲備貨幣。

從上列條件來看,歐羅區和美國的情況其實差不多,但歐羅在全球儲備貨幣中的比例卻與美元差一大截。按國際貨幣基金的數字,2017年底,歐羅的比例是20.2%,而美元是62.7%。這個差別的一個可能原因是,歐羅區內的國家沒有統一的財政政策,因此歐羅區國家的政府債券,並非一個單一的市場。

歐羅區內19個國家,每個國家的政府債券的風險都不一樣,如德國和希臘,便有一定的差別。這表示歐羅若要進一步成為儲備貨幣,歐羅區國家必須先有進一步的財政融合,但這談何容易,也不一定是成員國的共同目標。

同樣道理,一般來說,新興市場經濟的金融體系發展不足,金融市場規模較小,同時也可能有外滙管制,因此她們的貨幣在全球儲備貨幣中所佔的比例微乎其微。

日本本來有條件使日圓比今天更加國際化,因為日本曾經是全球第二大的經濟體,同時也是出口大國。但日本政府對日圓的國際化有所顧慮,特別是擔心日圓進一步國際化後因需求增加而升值,影響出口。過去20多年來日本經濟呆滯不前,到今天已錯失時機。

在中國金融改革進一步深化之前,美國只要維持適當的宏觀經濟政策,以及有深度、流動性和開放的金融市場,美元仍會繼續是全球最主要的國際貨幣,美國亦會繼續享受這個優越地位所帶來的好處。

陸炎輝 香港大學經濟及工商管理學院客席副教授

​(本文同時於二零一八年四月四日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)

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