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In the Media

Home Research Thought Leadership In the Media
Price Negotiation and Bulk Purchasing: Medical Procurement Reforms in the Mainland

Price Negotiation and Bulk Purchasing: Medical Procurement Reforms in the Mainland

14 Jun 2023
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靈魂砍價與以價換量:內地藥價改革

中國自1978年改革開放以來,高昂的醫療支出和虛高的藥價一直是影響民生的重大問題。2018年爆火的內地電影《我不是藥神》,就反映了許多癌症患者面臨的困境:單價近萬元的標靶藥物讓他們望而卻步。有鑑於此,中國政府近年來對藥價管理機制進行革命性的改革,取得了巨大成效。

舊規則百孔千瘡

過去40多年,內地的藥價改革成效不彰。1978到1996年,由政府統籌向市場轉型,藥價從之前的三級管理(出廠價、批發價、零售價均由政府規定)變為價格完全放開。雖然政府減少了對醫院的資助,但批准醫院提取藥價的15%作為利潤加成。到1990年代中期,藥品加成約佔門診收入的70%,是醫院收入的主要來源。處方與醫院的經濟利益掛鈎,醫生當然會開高價藥;而製藥公司為了讓旗下的產品打入醫院,必然會採取「高定價、高回扣」的行銷策略:不僅供貨價格高,還要給醫生或明或暗的回扣。如此「以藥養醫」,導致藥價大幅虛高。

自2000年起,中央政府改變策略,採取成本加價法,透過估算藥物生產成本,以確定最高零售價。然而,藥物流通過程複雜,從廠房到醫院,要經過製藥公司和代理銷售等環節,企業往往虛報成本,層層加碼。例如,2010年出廠價每盒為15.5元(人民幣.下同)的藥品「蘆筍片」,患者最終要付213元的價格,中間利潤高達十幾倍。

地方政府採用招標方式,通過省級藥品集中採購平台,讓多家企業競標。然而,招標只確定藥價上限,供應商需與醫院進行二次談判,來確定最終價格、交易數量以及醫院的回扣。由於在競價時沒有落實具體供應量,難以估算成本,藥商通常會將不合理的加成(如公關費)算進競標價。如果中標價低,醫院和醫生的「明扣暗扣」就會少很多,所以醫院對回扣額低的藥往往少買甚至不買,導致一些低價藥「中標就死」。這些因素促使企業在競標中報高價。例如出廠價僅為0.6元的克林黴素磷酸酯,在北京招標時,中標價高達11元,翻了十幾倍。

15%的加成無疑造成藥價高企,2009年起,中央政府予以取消。既然不能通過高藥價來行銷,企業只能利用高回扣以博取醫院和醫生的青睞。畢竟羊毛出在羊身上,高回扣必然意味高藥價,這一痼疾仍未解決。

藥價改革新機制

有鑑於過去藥價管理的種種弊端,中央政府在2017年和2019年分別採取了兩種新的管理機制:以國家藥品價格談判(「國談」)來管理專利藥,以國家藥品集中採購(「集採」)來管理仿製藥(即「非專利藥」)。

專利藥通常只由一家供貨,難以通過競爭達致合理價格。國談是國家醫療保障局(醫保局)與製藥公司之間的談判,以納入醫保為條件,促使製藥公司降低價格。先由專家評審確定入圍的創新藥名單,之後醫保局與製藥公司一對一談判,即俗稱的「靈魂砍價」。醫保局以醫保基金所能承擔的最高價作為秘密底價,企業可報價兩次,如報價在底價的115%內,可進入最終磋商,否則直接出局。

企業之所以同意降價,是因為納入醫保就有了進入主渠道銷售的機會,降低在醫院採購、醫生處方等環節的阻力,因而增加銷售量。2022年,治療罕見病脊髓肌肉萎縮症的特效藥諾西那生,每針的價格從原來的70多萬降到3萬多元,在進入醫保一年內銷售額翻了3倍。截至2023年2月,國談後大幅降價的藥品約3000種,預計在未來兩年為病者減輕負擔逾900億元。

仿製藥不乏競爭,所以政府的思路是競標,但須克服舊監管制度的重大缺陷。集採的核心也是以價換量,通過國家、省級的團購方式,將不同的藥品需求量化零為整後,對仿製藥進行集體招標。根據國家集採指示,符合申報資格的企業可自主申報競價。醫院需按中選價格採購預定數量,製藥公司不再需要二次議價,減少了灰色地帶。集採藥品的處方量納入醫生的績效考核,以確保其使用量。例如《我不是藥神》中所提及的口服標靶藥伊馬替尼(Imatinib),在集採後採購量增加34.8%。

國家要求醫院優先使用集採藥物,再加上內地龐大的藥品需求,企業為了贏得市場、增加中標率,自會大幅降價。2018年至2023年3月期間,一共開展8批集採,平均降價超過56%。中標企業可享有兩年多的採購周期,以保證公司集中精力生產和供應;集採藥物的療效和品質保證,經由專家評審。違約的中選公司會被列入黑名單,以限制甚至禁止其後續活動。

國談和集採在降低藥價和提升藥品普及性方面發揮顯著成效,卻也存在一些問題。靈魂砍價大幅降低企業利潤,可能減少製藥公司的研發動力。一些價值數十億元的藥品研發項目,最終只能帶來數千萬元收入,不利於行業和企業的長期發展。集採規定了醫院的處方量,同時亦限制了用藥靈活性和藥品選擇。高危病患者因質疑集採藥品的質量而拒絕使用,並曾出現副作用加劇的情況。

效法海外先進經驗

中國內地新實施的招採合一和量價掛鈎等做法,與香港的體制類似。香港醫療系統基本上沿襲英國的公共醫療服務模式。上世紀八十年代,香港也存在着藥價虛高和醫生回扣等弊病。1990年成立的醫院管理局,在2005年實施藥物名冊,公立醫院通過直接採購、競爭性談判、集中招標採購等方式,分類購買。比如,醫管局對專用藥物採取單一招標(匯總使用量,選取一家供應商),對通用藥物採取公開招標,以價換量。違約供應商也有相應的懲罰。

同樣,英國的藥價也受到政府管制;藥品定價分為3類:有充分市場競爭的藥物一般通過市場獲得最低價格;對於原研藥,國民保健署將利潤限制在投資總額的25%以下;仿製藥則採用最高限價。

至於美國的制度則有所不同,政府不直接干預藥品定價,而是由市場力量自由決定。自由定價讓製藥公司有較高的利潤和動力進行研發。2018年,美國處方藥物的價格平均為其他西方國家的2.5倍;胰島素每單位平均售價高達98.7美元,是英國的9倍。在經濟合作與發展組織中,美國一國的藥品研發就佔了所有成員國總支出的三分之二。

歸根究柢,改革的思路是充分利用市場力量,但在一定條件、一定行業中,一旦市場運作失靈,政府就要出手。惟具體做法必須慎重考慮,尤其要借鑑發達國家及地區(包括香港)的經驗。深謀遠慮的管理者,更要考慮行業的長期健康發展,切勿走嘩眾取寵、殺雞取卵之途。

 

周文博士
港大經管學院管理及商業策略副教授

劉茜嘉小姐
港大經管學院三年級本科生

(本文同時於二零二三年六月十四日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)

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