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Home Research Thought Leadership In the Media

Economic Disputes and US-China Trade War

2 Oct 2019
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經濟衝突與中美貿易戰

自美國發動對華貿易戰,至今已歷時超過18個月。貿易戰正逐步升級,中美都向對方愈來愈多的產品徵收關稅。當然,兩國政府也進行了多輪的談判,但尚未達成任何協議。目前,任何人都很難預測日後的發展;但是有一點可以肯定——即使兩國達成停止當前貿易戰的協議,衝突也不會結束,並且會在很長一段時間內反覆出現;這一論點是基於對貿易戰根源的理解。

自中美貿易戰爆發以來,關於其成因的文章很多。解釋的範圍非常廣泛,論據從政治、文化到經濟方面,一應俱全;然而很難說哪一個論點是錯誤的,因為各有一定的解釋力,要找來反駁證據殊不容易。話雖如此,卻可判斷哪種論點較為合理。正確的理解無疑是當前貿易戰的關鍵,如果對原因沒有正確的了解,就無法預見未來,也難以防止同一問題再次發生。

筆者曾就此問題發表幾篇相關文章,本文將提供一套較有系統的經濟論據和證據,用以解釋這場貿易戰。中國於1979年開始經濟改革和開放,在此後一段很長時間內,實現了經濟和貿易的高增長。時至今日,中國已發展成為全球第二大經濟體(基於GDP)和最大貿易國(基於出口貨品)。關於美國為何發動對華貿易戰,一種解釋是:它是快速崛起的中國和美國作為現存大國之間一場不可避免的鬥爭。這就是所謂「修昔底德陷阱」(Thucydides’s Trap)的體現。因此,有些人認為當前的中美衝突不是貿易戰,而是爭奪技術和地緣戰略優勢的鬥爭。在此,我不提出贊同或反對這種觀點,但會根據自己近期的研究,提供一些經濟和統計的分析;其中資料看來也支持這種觀點。

優勢逆轉爭端

根據美國經濟分析局(U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis)的數據,中美雙邊貿易從1999年的1,020億美元增加到2017年的7,120億美元。美國與中國的貿易在其總貿易中的份額,從 1999年的4.6%增加到2017年的13.6%。就出口而言,美國對中國的出口額在1999年約為170億美元,在2017年約為1,880億美元,增長了10倍以上。美國對華出口佔總出口的份額,從1999年的1.8%增加到2017年的8.0%。2017年,中國是美國商品的第三大出口市場。在進口方面,1999年美國從中國的進口額約為850億美元,2017年為5,240億美元,增長達6倍。 2017年,中國是美國最大的進口商品來源。

儘管中國融入全球經濟對本國和世界其他地區都是有利的,但其GDP和貿易規模的增長可能會導致貿易摩擦;國家或地區的大小,對貿易糾紛至關重要。在大多數貿易爭端中,一個國家可以從以下兩方面得到直接的經濟利益:一是改善對另一國家的貿易條件,二是其貿易夥伴降低關税和市場進入條件。因此,對一個出口國而言,其潛在利益的大小取決於進口國市場的重要性。當一個國家的市場變得更大後,就更可能和别國產生貿易摩擦。

2017年,美國對中國的出口最大類別是飛機、機械、雜糧、種子、水果、車輛、電機、旅行、知識產權和運輸。中國對美國出口的主要商品是電機、機械、家具和床上用品、玩具和運動器材、塑料、旅行、運輸以及研究與開發。貿易模式同時受到比較優勢和新貿易理論強調的因素影響,例如規模經濟、產品差異化和不完全競爭。

中美貿易格局的變化對貿易衝突有顯著影響。首先,中國原有的比較優勢仍然很強;同時,中國不斷在眾多產品中獲得新的比較優勢。這種變化加劇了各種行業、各類產品的國際競爭。其次,中國的比較優勢主要集中在勞動密集型產業上。因此,美國從中國增加進口,往往導致大量競爭行業裁員。與非勞動密集型行業相比,失業帶來的損失更明顯,反對的聲音也更大。

摩擦愈演愈烈

儘管在過去40年的大部分時間中,中美都保持着良好的貿易關係,但兩國之間也經常發生摩擦。美國認為,中國遠遠没達到世界貿易組織對其成員所要求的自由和以市場為基礎的經濟。美國貿易代表辦公室(Office of the United States Trade Representative)每年發布有關中國加入世貿組織的年度報告,以記錄中國在世貿組織承諾九大類別的實施情況,即貿易權、進口法規、出口法規、影響貿易、投資、農業、知識產權的內部政策、服務,以及法律框架。2017年,美國貿易代表辦公室向國會提交關於中國入世報告,正如其中所述,中國政府採取許多干預政策,加大了從國外市場進口商品和服務的貿易壁壘;並指出中國政府的扭曲行為與世貿組織成員的義務不符,使其他成員處於不利地位。從該辦公室2002年至2017年各種報告的數據可見,到了2016年底,美國政府針對中國向世貿的爭端解決機構(Dispute Settlement Body)提出了20項起訴,案件主要涉及中國在國內的稅收優惠、補貼、進出口限制、反傾銷和反補貼稅、知識產權執法和金融資訊服務。中美兩國還有許多其他雙邊爭端尚未帶到世貿組織。

筆者也曾在本欄論述中美兩國其他的經濟矛盾,包括長期和巨大的貿易不平衡、「强迫」技術轉移、企業對外直接投資、出口補貼等等;上文則聚焦於中美經濟和貿易40年以來的發展和摩擦。歸根究柢,無論任何單一的矛盾,都不足以釀成今天的貿易戰,然而當所有因素匯集一起,其影響力之大則難以預測。
丘東曉 香港大學經濟及工商管理學院副院長兼鍾瀚德基金教授(經濟發展學)

(本文同時於二零一九年十月二日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)

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