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In the Media

Home Research Thought Leadership In the Media
Behavioural Economics in Action: Insights from Deadly Industrial Accidents

Behavioural Economics in Action: Insights from Deadly Industrial Accidents

8 Jan 2025
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行爲經濟學之效:從致命工業意外說起

致命工業意外在香港時有發生,2024年上半年共11宗,較前年同期有所增加。勞工處公布,這些意外中有5宗關乎建造業,2宗與製造業有關,餘下4宗則涉及運輸、倉庫、郵政及速遞服務。建造業在職業安全健康方面一向存在較多問題,該5宗相關致命意外關乎有害物質、有人受困、被墮下的物件擊中等。

有立法會議員關注建造業界的安全意識薄弱,爲趕工而導致意外。勞工處指出,業界貪快、貪方便、「要錢唔要命」的弊病頗爲常見;如果做足安全措施,大部分意外本可避免。

經濟學假設人都是理性的,每個人的行爲應對自己最有利。要防止一件事情發生,就應該加大其成本,讓决策者加以避免。工業意外牽涉到雇員和雇主雙方;就雇員而言,如果安全措施沒做足,因工受傷甚至喪命,難道成本還不够大、還不應加倍小心嗎?

至于雇主方面,除了承擔賠償責任,還要被迫停工、接受監控、暫禁投標等。立法會2023年通過修訂《職業安全及職業健康法例(雜項修訂)條例草案》,最高罰款額由50萬元大增至1000萬元。加大成本難道還不足以讓公司警覺幷作出改善嗎?實行更嚴厲的法規、加强教育、監督雇員,對雇主而言,减少致命意外應該是收益大于成本,爲什麽情况未見明顯改善?

疏忽在所難免

近年興起的行爲經濟學認爲,人在决策、行動時,常常不够理性,幷沒有做出對自己最有利的選擇。認知科學、心理學爲這一說法提供了很多證據。美國心理學家Christopher Chabris和Daniel Simons曾經進行一項廣爲人知的實驗,其中安排6名學生互相傳遞籃球,然後將相關視頻播放給觀察者,要求他們點算其中3名穿白色上衣的學生總共傳球多少次。球來球往之際,有個身穿大猩猩服裝的人走到球員中間,捶胸頓足一番後便離開。這件匪夷所思的事情,竟有一半觀察者完全沒有注意到。短短數分鐘傳球過程中,舞臺背後的布景顔色瞬間改變,更是幾乎沒有觀察者留意得到。這一實驗後來被稱爲「有史以來最著名的心理學演示之一」,兩位研究者還因此獲頒搞笑諾貝爾獎。

有人說這是人爲製造的場景,你讓人去數傳球的次數,他當然不會注意有沒有大猩猩走過。問題是,我們在日常生活或决策過程中,雖然幷無受命要專注什麽,却自然而然只會專注某些事而忽略另外一些事。上述兩位學者亦曾在街頭進行另一實驗,其中參加者假裝在陌生的城市迷了路,向路過的人問路。在對話中安排了另外兩人抬著門板,强行從問路者和回答者中間穿插而過,而問路者與其中一個抬門板者巧妙互換。等門板過去,回答者繼續回答。雖然「調包」兩人的衣著、相貌差別很大,有一半觀察者却完全察覺不到問路者已經換了人。

如何避免意外

兩位學者的一系列研究都揭示,專注于某一件事的人,很容易忽略其他事情。2010年,他們將相關主題寫成《看不見的大猩猩》(The Invisible Gorilla: How Our Intuitions Deceive Us)一書,大獲好評,影響廣泛。書中大量例子表明,我們以爲可以全面、準確地觀察到周圍所發生的事情,但其實只看到這個世界的極小部分,而錯過了很多。我們的注意力、感知、記憶、推理,都有重大缺陷和錯失,常常導致代價高昂甚至危及生命的錯誤。

每個人都會犯類似的錯誤。香港每年都有多宗高層住客在晾衫時,意外跌出窗外而喪命的慘劇。在工業意外中死亡的雇員,也很可能基于同一原因:不是不懂後果嚴重,而是大大低估了發生事故的可能性。

要改善此情况,當然不能單靠加大懲罰力度,而要從教育入手。勞工處稱,有些個案每每發生在缺乏安全意識的少數族裔身上,因此要特別針對這個群組推展有關宣傳。

雇主方面,則需要考慮到底是公司對問題認知不足,還是只因尚未找到合適、有效的方法。如果是前者,當然應該進一步加重處罰,有議員就建議設立舉報機制。若是後者,則政府和行業協會應該加强教育、督促公司切實執行有關法規,委派專人監督,組織有效的經驗交流。

此外,不妨借助高科技,例如勞工處正在研究利用無人機協助搜證和執法。除了執法和懲罰,高科技還有更正面的作用。例如智能相機鏡頭現已用來及時發出警報,以免司機因打瞌睡而出意外,或長者上洗手間時摔倒。應用到工業場景,可研究能否在搭棚工人的頭盔裝上智能鏡頭,以監察工友在工作時是否已扣上安全繩。至于在固定場所(如工廠),安裝智能相機確保工業安全,相信較易實行。

理性還是非理性

注意力一時疏忽,看似是人類的認知缺失,但換個角度看,倒可以視爲人類認知的巨大成就。幾百萬年前,在非洲大草原上的人類祖先,需要在瞥見移動物體的瞬間,斷定是否獅子、豹子之類的吃人猛獸,是否需要拔腿就跑,而不是全面、準確、客觀地認識世界;在極短的時間內,根據一鱗半爪的訊息,就要迅速决定如何行動。換句話說,認知是解讀而非接收,追求的是效率而非全面、客觀。爲了作出决定,只需抓取一點點關鍵資料,而忽略其他。

人到底是理性還是非理性,所做决策是否對自己最有利?就證據而言,幷不是非黑即白,既有仔細思考、權衡利弊的例子,也有鹵莽大意而丟失性命的個案。

就學術研究而言,理性抑或非理性都只是假設。采取什麽樣的假設,主要不是看假設是否絕對符合實際,而是看它能否最有效地幫助我們分析和理解問題。

至于公共政策,則不能直接假設人是理性的。行爲經濟學對于非理性行爲的關注,可以爲公共政策帶來新的思路。以器官移植爲例,世界各國都面對捐贈器官供應短缺問題。雖然德國與奧地利在語言、宗教、歷史、經濟發展、教育水平各方面都很近似,但德國的器官捐贈登記率只有15%,奧地利却高達90%以上。專家發現,造成這一重大差別的原因,在于德國的系統要求捐贈者填表,聲明同意捐贈,亦即自願捐贈(opt-in);沒采取任何行動的人,等于不願意捐贈。奧地利的系統則倒轉過來,沒采取任何行動的人視爲「預設默許」(opt-out)捐贈,而不願意捐贈器官者,則需要填表聲明。

科學家的研究表明,在德國、美國這些推行自願捐贈機制的國家,國民認爲器官捐贈道德高尚但成本高昂,好比要决定把遺産的5%甚至50%捐給慈善機構,或相當于絕食抗議這樣代價高昂的行爲。而在奧地利這種實施預設默許安排的國家,國民認爲器官捐贈是件小事,無關道德,有點像讓某人在排隊時插隊,又或缺席孩子的畢業典禮和棒球比賽。

在香港,由此産生的政策建議也就清晰明確:如果希望提升器官捐贈的比率,一個簡單有效的辦法,就是將現行自願捐贈的機制,改爲預設默許捐贈。

周文教授
港大經管學院管理及商業策略副教授

(本文同時於二零二五年一月八日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)

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