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Home Research Thought Leadership Latest Research Publications

Why China and US Both Facing Trade Imbalances?

15 Aug 2018
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中美貿易不平衡原因何在?

今年全球經濟的焦點肯定是中美貿易戰。特朗普政府挑起貿易戰的理由(藉口)有三:第一,中美貿易長期和巨大的不平衡;第二,中國強迫美國公司轉移技術;第三,中國政府推動「中國製造2025」。本文將聚焦第一個議題。

從統計數字上看,中美貿易確實存在長期和巨大的不平衡。拿2016年為例,美國的貨物貿易逆差總額為7.4千億美元,逆差的主要來源國包括中國、加拿大、墨西哥、日本、德國;來自中國的逆差為最大,高達3.47千億美元,佔總逆差的47.1%。為什麼中美貿易逆差問題如此嚴重?

貿易失衡根源

中美貿易不平衡的一個重要原因是經濟全球化,相關因素在兩方面。首先,美國在中國進行對外直接投資。一般來說,企業對外直接投資有兩個動機,一個是為了直接進入目標國的市場,另一個是為了利用目標國的資源,進行生產後再出口。

一些原本在美國生產後出口到中國的產品,經直接投資後,就在中國生產直接賣到本地市場了,而不用再出口,亦即減少了美國對中國的出口。

有的美國企業到中國投資設廠,目的就是利用中國的廉價勞動力等優勢,生產零件或最終產品,再運回美國市場銷售。換言之,又增加了美國從中國的進口。其中涉及的產品雖然並非來自中國企業,但此消彼長,卻大大增加了中美兩國的貿易不平衡。

其次,除了在中國投資的美國企業,還有很多外國企業都在中國進行各種加工貿易。加工貿易指生產的部分或全部原材料來自進口,加工後的產品又重新出口。

由於中國的勞動力比較便宜,加工貿易在中國較多集中在勞動密集型製造業,例如零件組裝。在加工貿易中,進口原料主要不是來自美國,但大量的出口卻流向美國,導致美國從中國的進口大幅增加,而很大部分加工貿易亦與中國企業無關。

上述兩方面因素所以重要,因為中國超過半數的出口源於外資企業和加工貿易。當然,中美貿易的不平衡還有其他原因,例如兩國的宏觀經濟特徵、滙率制度、出口補貼、進口保護等等,但我認為這些原因都沒有上述兩方面的因素來得重要。

中美貿易逆差還有另一棘手問題,那就是兩國官方公布的逆差數字相去懸殊。以2005年為例,美國公布的貿易逆差數字為2.02千億美元,但中國的逆差數字僅為1.14千億美元,其中差額高達8.8百億美元,差距不可謂不大。同年,日本是美國貿易逆差的第二大國,但日美兩國間的逆差總額也只有8.2百億美元,還不及上面所說的統計誤差呢。

統計方法失誤

2016年,美國的逆差數字為3.47千億美元,中國的數字則為2.507千億美元,相差增至9.63百億美元。2017年,美國公布的數字為3.76千億美元,但中國的數字則為2.79千億美元,相差更達9.7百億美元.

為什麼中美兩國的貿易資料出現如此重大的差異?我認為原因有兩個,又都與香港有關。第一,兩國對經香港轉口貿易的統計方法不同。中國對美國的出口和從美國的進口,都有很大部分經過香港,高峰時期比率更接近一半。美國商務部把中國經香港轉口到美國的商品,算作美國從中國的進口(這是對的),但把美國經香港轉口到中國的商品,算作美國對香港(而不是對中國)的出口(這就不對了)。這一計算方法高估了美國的貿易逆差。

中國海關一直都把美國經香港轉口到中國的商品,算作美國對中國的出口(這是對的),但在1993年之前,卻把中國經香港轉口到美國的商品,算作中國對香港的出口(這就錯了)。這一計算方法無疑低估了美國的貿易逆差。

從1993年開始,中國海關要求出口企業滙報出口產品的最終去向,從而盡量把中國經香港轉口到美國的商品,算作中國對美國的出口(這是對的);然而出口商並不可能把所有經香港轉口的產品都準確滙報,所以,中國的統計仍會低估美國的貿易逆差,但就會比美國的數字貼近現實。

其次,香港的轉口商品在本港產生不少附加值,據部分估計多達20%。這些附加值,按理說應在上述計算中扣除,因為屬於香港的服務出口。可是這些附加值的資料難以獲得,所以通常不會包括在內,形成兩國的統計數字總會經常出現極大誤差。

本文旨在分析中美貿易逆差,其中包含一些備受忽略的要素。歸根究柢,兩國雙邊貿易順差或逆差真的很重要嗎?

一言以蔽之,重點並不在於雙邊貿易不平衡,而首先是,一國是否存在長期和巨大的貿易不平衡?再者,雙邊貿易不平衡的原因究竟是什麼?

由於各國各有比較優勢,所以某國自會對另一國多出口其較佔優的產品,又會多從第三國進口其他產品,往往導致雙邊貿易不平衡,但不至造成各國總貿易出現大的不平衡。對外投資和生產的全球化現象,也會加重比較優勢的作用,雙邊貿易不平衡因而變本加厲。

綜上所述,中美雙邊貿易不平衡雖然顯著,但其實問題不大,也屬自然結果,但中美兩國又都存在單邊、長期、龐大的貿易不平衡,亦即中國順差,美國逆差,這才是問題癥結。

究其原因,無疑與經濟的結構、國家政策、貿易保護等因素有不可分割的關係。

丘東曉 香港大學經濟及工商管理學院副院長兼鍾瀚德基金教授(經濟發展學)
(本文同時於二零一八年八月十五日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)

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