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HKEJ Column

Home Research Thought Leadership HKEJ Column
Monty Hall problem and Behavioural Economics

Monty Hall problem and Behavioural Economics

17 Jun 2020
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「Monty Hall難題」與行為經濟學

Monty Hall(1921-2017)是經典電視遊戲節目Let’s Make a Deal主持人。節目在1963年首播;自此,Monty Hall一直是節目主持,至1986年節目一度停播為止。作為Let’s Make a Deal首任節目主持人,主持此節目更逾20年,Monty Hall自然成為Let’s Make a Deal的代表。(Let’s Make a Deal是長青節目,目前仍在美國電視網絡CBS播放,現任節目主持為Wayne Brady。)

Let’s Make a Deal的遊戲規則如下。有三扇門,主持(Monty Hall)將一輛全新汽車隱藏於其中一扇門後,其餘兩扇門的門後皆是空的。如果遊戲參加者最終選的門後有汽車,他(她)便贏取此大獎;如果他最終選的門後是空的,他只會得到一份無實質價值的安慰獎。遊戲的目的是選中有車在後面的那扇門。

Monty Hall先邀請一位觀眾成為參加者,再邀請他在三扇門中先擇其一。之後,Monty Hall會在參加者沒選的兩扇門中打開一扇後面沒有車的門,即還有兩扇門仍然關閉(參加者之前選的一扇和另外Monty Hall沒有打開的一扇)。最後,Monty Hall問參加者:「轉不轉選另一扇門?」此為「Monty Hall難題」(Monty Hall Problem)。

一般人並不覺得Monty Hall難題特別難,數據顯示大部分人「不轉選另一扇門」;他們可能認為有車在此兩扇門後的機會均等,即各為二分一,因此「轉選另一扇門」不會增加中獎機會,所以便「不轉選」了。Monty Hall難題之所以難,因為以上的觀點是錯的;正確答案是「不轉選」的中獎機會只有三分一,而「轉選」的中獎機會則是三分二。很多人覺得此答案難以置信,以下的解釋或可幫助讀者解開疑團。

三扇門分別為A、B、C,【表1】是「不轉選」的中獎結果:

【表1】

Monty Hall隱藏車在

參加者先選

Monty Hall打開

參加者「不轉選」

結果

A

A

B或C

A

中獎

A

B

C

B

不中

A

C

B

C

不中

B

A

C

A

不中

B

B

A或C

B

中獎

B

C

A

C

不中

C

A

B

A

不中

C

B

A

B

不中

C

C

A或B

C

中獎

【表1】列1(左至右)是Monty Hall隱藏車的門;列2是參加者先選的門;列3是Monty Hall打開的門(Monty Hall只能打開參加者沒選而門後沒有隱藏車的門);列4和列2一樣,因為參加者不轉選;列5是中獎結果。

【表1】列5清楚顯示,如果參加者不轉選,9個均等機會中只有3次中獎,因此不轉選的中獎機會為三分一(即一般人認為不轉選的中獎機會二分一是錯的)。

同樣的方法可以用來計算「轉選」的中獎結果,見【表2】:

【表2】

Monty Hall將車隱藏在

參與者先選

Monty Hall打開

參與者「轉選」

結果

A

A

B或C

C或B

不中

A

B

C

A

中獎

A

C

B

A

中獎

B

A

C

B

中獎

B

B

A或C

C或A

不中

B

C

A

B

中獎

C

A

B

C

中獎

C

B

A

C

中獎

C

C

A或B

B或A

不中

【表2】列1、2、3(左至右)和前表列1、2、3一樣;列4和前表列4相反,因為參加者只能轉選Monty Hall沒打開的另一扇門;列5是中獎結果。

【表2】列5清楚顯示,如果參加者轉選,9個均等機會中有6次中獎,因此轉選的中獎機會為三分二(即一般人認為轉選的中獎機會二分一是錯的)。

其實,上述方法並非標準方法,標準方法是直接應用概率論的《貝葉斯法則》(Bayes’ rule),而《貝葉斯法則》提供的答案相同,即不轉選的中獎機會只有三分一,而轉選的中獎機會則是三分二。根據《貝葉斯法則》,參加者只需轉一轉,中獎機會便會翻一番,何樂而不為?經濟學家甚至將貝葉斯(Bayesian)定為理性標準特性之一,即理性的人必須遵循《貝葉斯法則》,不遵從《貝葉斯法則》的人便不理性。可想而知,Monty Hall難題對標準經濟學帶來一定的衝擊。

首當其衝的是《貝葉斯法則》,將貝葉斯定為理性特性之一是否恰當?Monty Hall難題顯示大部分人不遵從《貝葉斯法則》,但究竟是他們未能掌握《貝葉斯法則》,將轉選的中獎機會上調至三分二?抑或是就算他們得到和貝葉斯相同的結論,他們還是決定不轉選?兩位意大利經濟學家Morone和Fiore最近設計一個實驗,可助我們理解為什麼那麼多人在Monty Hall難題不遵從《貝葉斯法則》(Monty Hall’s Three Doors for Dummies)。

他們簡化Monty Hall難題,在參加者先選一扇門後,便直接問他是否願意轉選另外兩扇門?(簡化後的實驗再沒有(i)主持在參加者沒選的兩扇門中打開一扇沒有車的門和(ii)之後問參加者「轉不轉選另一扇門?」)他們簡化實驗的目的是讓參加者不需應用《貝葉斯法則》而得到和該法則相同的結論,即「不轉選」,只選一扇門(中獎機會為三分一),而「轉選」換取兩扇門,即時提高中獎機會至三分二。他們的實驗結果顯示更多人決定「轉選」,換取兩扇門;此結果為不少人未能掌握《貝葉斯法則》提供證據,因為這些人很可能未能掌握《貝葉斯法則》,但當他們得到和貝葉斯相同的結果,便決定轉選,提高中獎機會。

他們的實驗結果同時顯示,還有不少人決定「不轉選」。如果你不相信這些人弄不清選兩扇門的中獎機會是選一扇門的雙倍,便有需要解釋為何他們不轉選兩扇門,換取雙倍中獎機會。在這方面,行為經濟學以「現狀偏差」(status quo bias)(或「稟賦效應」endowment effect)解釋,因為人總覺得現狀比轉變好,就算轉選可提高中獎機會一倍,他們還是安於現狀。

Monty Hall難題揭示標準經濟學不足之處(如假設貝葉斯是理性特性之一似乎有點「離地」);行為經濟學可補不足之餘,還有助我們了解標準經濟學如何不足,提醒我們在學術上切勿墨守成規。

 

程騰歡 香港大學經濟及工商管理學院副教授
(本文同時於二零二零年六月十七日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄)

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