logo
  • Global Presence
  • About Us
        • About us about us
        • A Premier Business School in Asia with Global Influence
        • Overview
          • Message from the Dean
          • Vision & Mission
          • Milestones
          • Partnerships & Global Network
          • Beta Gamma Sigma HKU Chapter
          • Rankings & Accreditations
          • Corporate Collaboration
        • Leadership
          • Faculty Management
          • International Advisory Council
        • Our Stories
        • Contact Us
        • Staff Portal
        • Campuses
  • Programmes
        • Programmes programmes
        • Diversified Learning Experience Empowers our Students
        • Undergraduate
        • Masters
          • MAA
          • MAcct
          • MCGRM
          • MEcon
          • MFWM
          • MFin
          • MFFinTech
          • MGM
          • MSAF
          • MSc(BA)
          • MScMktg
          • MWM
        • MBAs & EMBAs
          • MBA
          • IMBA
          • HKU EMBA
        • PhD
        • Executive Education
        • DBA
  • People
        • People people
        • International Faculty Body that Offers Quality Education
        • Faculty
        • Post-Doctoral Fellows
        • Demonstrators/ Teaching Assistants
        • Research Postgraduate Students
        • Administration
  • Research
        • Research research
        • Lead the Frontier of Knowledge Creation
        • Thought Leadership
          • Latest Research Publications
          • HKEJ Column
          • FT Chinese Column
          • In the Media
        • Academic Areas
        • Faculty Members
        • Research Grants
        • Seminars & Conferences
          • Edward K Y Chen Distinguished Lecture Series
        • Research Centres & Institutes
        • Hong Kong Macroeconomics Forecast
        • HKU Knowledge Exchange
        • HKU Scholars Hub
        • Shenzhen Research Institutes
  • Events
  • Media
        • Media media
        • Inspire the Society and Community with Rigorous Insights
        • School News
        • In the Media
        • Press Release
  • Career
        • Career career
        • Fostering Strategic Partnerships and Talent Development
        • Recruit our Talents
        • Student Career Development
        • Career Opportunities
          • Faculty Recruitments
          • HKU Career Site
  • 繁
  • 简
Type To Search
logo
Type To Search
  • Global Presence
  • About Us
        • About us about us
        • A Premier Business School in Asia with Global Influence
        • Overview
          • Message from the Dean
          • Vision & Mission
          • Milestones
          • Partnerships & Global Network
          • Beta Gamma Sigma HKU Chapter
          • Rankings & Accreditations
          • Corporate Collaboration
        • Leadership
          • Faculty Management
          • International Advisory Council
        • Our Stories
        • Contact Us
        • Staff Portal
        • Campuses
  • Programmes
        • Programmes programmes
        • Diversified Learning Experience Empowers our Students
        • Undergraduate
        • Masters
          • MAA
          • MAcct
          • MCGRM
          • MEcon
          • MFWM
          • MFin
          • MFFinTech
          • MGM
          • MSAF
          • MSc(BA)
          • MScMktg
          • MWM
        • MBAs & EMBAs
          • MBA
          • IMBA
          • HKU EMBA
        • PhD
        • Executive Education
        • DBA
  • People
        • People people
        • International Faculty Body that Offers Quality Education
        • Faculty
        • Post-Doctoral Fellows
        • Demonstrators/ Teaching Assistants
        • Research Postgraduate Students
        • Administration
  • Research
        • Research research
        • Lead the Frontier of Knowledge Creation
        • Thought Leadership
          • Latest Research Publications
          • HKEJ Column
          • FT Chinese Column
          • In the Media
        • Academic Areas
        • Faculty Members
        • Research Grants
        • Seminars & Conferences
          • Edward K Y Chen Distinguished Lecture Series
        • Research Centres & Institutes
        • Hong Kong Macroeconomics Forecast
        • HKU Knowledge Exchange
        • HKU Scholars Hub
        • Shenzhen Research Institutes
  • Events
  • Media
        • Media media
        • Inspire the Society and Community with Rigorous Insights
        • School News
        • In the Media
        • Press Release
  • Career
        • Career career
        • Fostering Strategic Partnerships and Talent Development
        • Recruit our Talents
        • Student Career Development
        • Career Opportunities
          • Faculty Recruitments
          • HKU Career Site
港大經管學院
  • Global Presence
  • About Us
    • Overview
      • Message from the Dean
      • Vision & Mission
      • Milestones
      • Partnerships & Global Network
      • Beta Gamma Sigma HKU Chapter
      • Rankings & Accreditations
      • Corporate Collaboration
    • Leadership
      • Faculty Management
      • International Advisory Council
    • Our Stories
    • Contact Us
    • Staff Portal
    • Campuses
  • Programmes
    • Undergraduate
    • Masters
      • MAA
      • MAcct
      • MCGRM
      • MEcon
      • MFWM
      • MFin
      • MFFinTech
      • MGM
      • MSAF
      • MSc(BA)
      • MScMktg
      • MWM
    • MBAs & EMBAs
      • MBA
      • IMBA
      • HKU EMBA
    • DBA
    • PhD
    • Executive Education
  • People
    • Faculty
    • Post-Doctoral Fellows
    • Demonstrators/ Teaching Assistants
    • Research Postgraduate Students
    • Administration
  • Research
    • Thought Leadership
      • Latest Research Publications
      • HKEJ Column
      • FT Chinese Column
      • In the Media
    • Academic Areas
    • Faculty Members
    • Research Grants
    • Seminars & Conferences
      • Edward K Y Chen Distinguished Lecture Series
    • Research Centres & Institutes
    • Hong Kong Macroeconomics Forecast
    • HKU Knowledge Exchange
    • HKU Scholars Hub
    • Shenzhen Research Institutes
  • Events
  • Media
    • School News
    • In the Media
    • Press Release
  • Career
    • Recruit our Talents
    • Student Career Development
    • Career Opportunities
      • Faculty Recruitments
      • HKU Career Site

HKEJ Column

Home Research Thought Leadership HKEJ Column
Economic analysis on the history of witch trials

Economic analysis on the history of witch trials

18 Mar 2020
Share on TwitterShare on FacebookShare on WhatsappShare on LinkedInShare on Email

巫師審判史的經濟學分析 

英語詞witch hunt原本是指對巫師的追捕,今天在英語世界使用時,則用上它的引伸義,指專制政府、有權勢者或政要對異見者的政治迫害。美國總統特朗普去年就把民主黨對他的彈劾調查,以及前任官員對他不利的爆料,稱為witch hunt。前些時候南韓新天地教會的發言人抱怨,他們的信眾作為新型冠狀病毒的受害者,卻被視為傳播病毒的禍首,英文媒體轉述他的發言時,就用上witch hunt這個詞(不知發言人原本用的是韓語還是英語!)。

筆者並非政治學家,無意在本文討論政治迫害這個話題,倒是有興趣把讀過有關witch hunt的一些實證經濟學分析,在此和讀者分享。

巫師審判和氣候變化

Emily Oster在2004年的一篇文章【註1】,開宗明義就指出:「十三世紀至十九世紀期間,在歐洲有多達100萬人因使用巫術罪成而遭處決,有關審判和處決大都在十六世紀和十七世紀進行,處決的速度和宗數非常驚人,以一個德國城鎮為例,一天內有多達400人被處決(Midelfort,1972)。這些審判無處不在,由宗教法庭以及民間法庭審理,主審者包括天主教徒和新教徒。」

同樣耐人尋味的是,羅馬天主教教會對巫術的看法前後不同的變化。在中世紀早期,羅馬天主教拒絕承認巫師存在,因此也不會審判被指施行巫術的人。中世紀歐洲人普遍相信巫術存在,以致1258年教皇亞歷山大四世(Pope Alexander IV)不得不頒布規定,禁止以搜捕方式迫害巫師。但是到了1550年,基督教一改本來立場,獵巫活動便在基督教世界隨之而興。

此外,Emily Oster的文章探討氣候和經濟增長對巫師審判宗數的影響。氣象學家認為,從1550年到1770年這220年為小冰河期,歐洲和北美洲出現氣溫下降的現象。Oster把歐洲分為11個地區(包括今日的瑞士、英國、法國、芬蘭、匈牙利等),搜集了這段期間每個地區的溫度和巫師審判的宗數,發現兩者密切相關:當溫度下降(即氣候較嚴寒時),審判宗數上升,反之亦然。文章顯示了這樣的一個結果【圖】,橫軸是各段10年期;兩條曲線分別代表溫度和審判宗數。

對於這些結果,作者有以下的解讀:巫師審判是大規模的暴力事件,客觀上是為經濟困難的替罪羔羊。因此當溫度下降以及糧食短缺時,巫師審判的宗數往往增加。

巫師審判是宗教的非價格競爭手段?

上文所述基督教會對巫術態度轉變,到底其在西方歷史上巫師審判中扮演了什麼角色?經濟學家P. T. Leeson和J. W. Russ在2018年發表的研究論文中【註2】,提出了一個有趣的觀點:這些審判其實反映了羅馬天主教和新教之間,在爭奪宗教市場上的「非價格競爭」(non-price competition)!

為了驗證此一想法,兩位作者構建了兩套數據。第一套是用作構建巫師審判活動衡量指標的數據,其中包含1300年至1850年期間21個歐洲國家的巫師審判資料,根據37種包含歷史上審判記錄的原始資料輯錄而成,詳載舉行各宗審判的日期和地點,其中涉及的審判共計10805宗,被告為數43240人,其中16333人最終被判死刑。

第二套則是宗教競爭程度的指標。為了反映宗教競爭的劇烈程度,最理想的做法是對比當地天主教徒和新教徒的人數比率,可惜這方面的數據並不存在。因此,作者退而求其次,根據歷史記載當時的宗教戰役(confessional battles)規模和頻繁程度,作為當地宗教競爭的指標。

這些數據顯示,獵巫是緊接1517年宗教改革才大幅增加,作者認為由馬丁路德(Martin Luther)發動的宗教改革,首次為廣大基督徒提供了繼續信奉舊教或改信新教的選擇,造成了教會之間的競爭。羅馬天主教教會和新教教會都不遺餘力地進行巫師審判。由於信眾信有巫師,以及巫師可能加害於他們,教會於是就有動機在獵巫活動上,為信徒展現其決心和力量。

Leeson和Russ根據統計發現,巫師審判的活動力度和宗教市場競爭的激烈程度成正比,具體分析如下。

1. 十六世紀初新教在歐洲各國興起,巫師審判活動相應增加。

2. 新教在西方基督教世界合法化,特別是1555年簽訂《奧格斯堡和約》(Peace of Augsburg)之後,巫師審判活動隨之白熱化,神聖羅馬帝國將路德教(Lutheranism)非刑事化,各親王可以自行為其領地內的居民選擇羅馬天主教或路德派。但意想不到的是,部分有宗教狂熱的親王企圖將其所信奉教派推廣到鄰近領地,而激化天主教和新教之間的市場爭奪戰。

3. 1648年,歐洲諸國締結《威斯特伐利亞條約》(Treaty of Westphalia),將神聖羅馬帝國的宗派地域回復到1624年1月的狀況,從此奠定歐洲宗教版圖,即使親王改變其個人信奉的宗派,也不得更改其領地的宗派,減低羅馬天主教和新教之間地盤爭奪戰的動機,獵巫活動亦從十七世紀中葉以後逐漸衰落。

4. 在德國和瑞士這些宗教市場競爭最激烈的地方,巫師審判活動尤其盛行。至於羅馬天主教的大本營(如西班牙、意大利),宗教改革難以推行,巫師審判活動則不成氣候。

對於這項研究,筆者有個疑問。作者以宗教戰役反映宗教競爭的激烈程度,雖然兩者密切相關,但並非完全一樣;巫師審判是否由戰役和衝突衍生,而與宗教無關?

2020年開局以來,世界出現了各種亂象,澳洲的山火向我們發出氣候變化的警示。先在中國肆虐的新型冠狀病毒,已經變成了世界大流行,疫情造成全球供應鏈斷裂,西方國家的醫療體系更面臨崩潰;中國制度的強大執行力量在應對這次危機顯出它的優越之處,亦為西方民主制度和全球治理問題,帶來前所未有的挑戰。面對危難,會否令當政者作出符合部分民眾偏見的行動,這是值得關注的事情。

【圖】1520–1770年期間“標準化”溫度(正方點線)與“標準化”巫師審判宗數(菱形點線)

資料來源:Witchcraft, Weather and Economic Growth in Renaissance Europe

註1: Emily Oster. ‘Witchcraft, Weather and Economic Growth in Renaissance Europe’. Journal of Economic Perspectives vol.18, no. 1 (Winter 2004): pp. 215–228.

註2: Peter T. Leeson and Jacob W. Russ. ‘Witch Trials’. The Economic Journal 128 (August): pp.2066–2105. Doi:10.1111/ecoj.12498.

 

趙耀華 香港大學經濟及工商管理學院副教授

(本文同時於二零二零年三月十八日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄。)

Organisations’ dilemma amidst the spread of epidemics11 Mar 2020
Economic measures amid the global pandemic25 Mar 2020
Trending
Innovation Strategy Common Ground – from Poverty Alleviation to International Web3 Centre
Innovation Strategy Common Ground – from Poverty Alleviation to International Web3 Centre
Prof. Joseph CHAN
Hong Kong has long been successful in its four pillar industries, comprising trading and logistics, financial services, professional and producer services and tourism. According to the research by the HK government, they contributed close to 60% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and almost half of the total employment before COVID. However, all these four pillars have encountered the decline in their respective area – resulting from the rapid change in market need & user behavior, regional and global competition, the development in new value-chain and advanced technology, as well as geo-political environment. As a solution, ‘innovation’ has been introduced to address these pain-points of Hong Kong. The question to ask, how should we develop the innovation strategies – instead of coming up ideas for the sake of ‘innovation’? In this article, we will discuss how innovation strategy could be approached from the perspective of poverty alleviation to Web3 industry development – two topics sound not-related, but their common ground might give us the insight on how we could find the development path of Hong Kong.
14 May 2025
Faculty
Gambling with Tariffs: A Losing Proposition for All
Gambling with Tariffs: A Losing Proposition for All
Dr. Maurice K.S. TSE
關稅豪賭  只有輸家 國際貨幣基金組織在上月發表的《世界經濟展望》,將全球經濟增長預測從今年 1 月的 3.3% 顯著調低至 2.8%。報告指出,中國和印度將成為推動全球經濟增長的主要動力,預計未來5年貢獻比例分別為 23%和超過15%;而美國因其關稅政策的不確定性,對全球經濟的貢獻率遭下調至 11.3%。
7 May 2025
Faculty
Dr_Stepten_Chiu_web
About Author
Dr. Stephen Y CHIU

Honorary Associate Professor

Tags
Economics
Sign up for upcoming news and events
LinkedIn WeChat Instagram Facebook Weibo Twitter YouTube

©2025, HKU Business School. All Rights Reserved. | Privacy Policy | Web Accessibility Statement