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HKEJ Column

Home Research Thought Leadership HKEJ Column
Are social media causing political polarisation?

Are social media causing political polarisation?

20 Jan 2021
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社交媒體造成政治兩極化?

說特朗普任內以社交媒體治國並不為過,他在推特和臉書就分別有8800萬和300萬的追隨者。1月6日發生示威者衝擊國會山莊事件之後,特朗普被社交媒體封鎖,推特甚至永久封閉其私人賬戶。這些事件都來得非常突然,特朗普作為一個現象,和他任內的作為,特別是在任期的最後幾個月,都是值得歷史學家和政治學家細加研究的課題。

美國去年發生了大規模的示威,暴露了社會的深層次矛盾,兩黨選民之間的對立,也似乎到了史無前例的地步。網上社交媒體有否推波助瀾,令社會更為分化?它們防止危險言論的措施,會不會矯枉過正,成為另一種風險?筆者希望在此對第一個問題,介紹一些新近研究結果,儘管這些研究並不涉及最近的大選。

首先介紹一項關於美國的研究【註1】。論文作者指出,種種量度指標都揭示美國在政治上日益兩極化(polarization)。舉例說,在1960年,共和黨和民主黨支持者僅各有5%,會對自己的子女與另一政黨支持者結婚「感到不快」(displeased);但到了2010年,則約有一半的共和黨支持者和超過30%的民主黨支持者對此「感到有點不快或甚感不快」(feel somewhat or very unhappy)。投票給自己所屬政黨候選人的比例,從1980至2015年間增加了50%;在1971年有71%受訪選民表示,在總統大選和國會大選中,均會投給同一政黨的候選人,這個數字更在2012年上升到90%。

不同年齡組別兩極化情況

論文作者根據前人研究的8個常用的兩極化指標,整合成一個綜合指標。在數據方面,他們根據一項長期調查(American National Election Studies),把人口分為4組,分別是18至39歲、40至64歲、65歲以上,和75歲以上,並且計算出各個年齡組別在不同時間的綜合指標度。(這個指標為正數,參考的數值定為1,數值愈大兩極化愈嚴重)。此外,作者通過其他調查,整理出這些年齡組別使用互聯網的頻繁程度。

從【圖】中可見,每個分圖中的一條粗黑線,就是該年齡組別兩極化的綜合指標,18至39歲和40至65歲這兩個組別的兩極化程度,不及另外兩個組別嚴重。在過去二十多年,兩極化最嚴重的其實是高齡群組。

圖 18–75歲以上各年齡組別的兩極化綜合指標
diagram資料來源:【註1】
然而數據分析顯示(這也符合常識),高齡群組使用互聯網和社交媒體的程度較低,年輕群組使用互聯網和社交媒體則較普遍。雖然許多作者認為互聯網特別是社交媒體是政治兩極化的一個驅策力量,這篇文章的發現卻不支持此一看法,互聯網和社交媒體對於近年的政治兩極化現象,充其量只能起到有限的作用。

社交媒體和仇恨犯罪

以下介紹另一項研究,關於社交媒體是否增加仇恨罪行(hate crimes)的因果關係分析【註2】。

這篇論文以俄羅斯的數據為依據,俄羅斯幅員廣大,有180個少數民族,很適合進行這方面的研究。VKontakte(簡稱VK)是俄羅斯的最主要網上社交平台,2006年秋天由聖彼得堡國立大學一名學生所創建,其功能和設計與臉書十分相似,2011年在俄羅斯的市場佔有率高達90%。

VK的早期參與者都是該大學的學生,來自全國各地,各自把VK帶回老家,因此至少在VK的早年,其滲透率高低由歷史所決定。這種情況有如對照實驗,提供了理想的研究數據。

文章指出,社交媒體的滲透率愈高,種族仇恨罪案就愈普遍。而在民族情緒本來就較熾烈的地方,這種效果更為明顯,其中VK滲透率每增加10%,仇恨罪行就會隨之增加25.8%。相反,在民族主義情緒最溫和的地方,VK滲透率增加對當地仇恨罪行的數目則絲毫沒有影響。

2018年夏天,作者又通過網上問卷形式,以125個城市的4000名受訪者為對象,探討VK滲透率如何影響市民的仇外心態。對於這類敏感議題,受訪者往往有所忌諱,不願公開承認,因而影響了問卷調查的可靠性。作者於是用了一個巧妙的辦法處理,把受訪者隨機分為兩組,為對照組的受訪者開出四道命題,讓他們回答同意多少道命題。至於實驗組,除了這四道命題,還開出有第五道(以下簡稱為排外命題):「我對某些種族感到不耐煩或討厭」(I feel annoyance or dislike toward some ethnicities)。

將實驗組同意的命題平均數,減去對照組同意的平均數,就等於受訪者同意排外命題的百分比。由於承認排外情緒的方式並非公開,是作者推論出來的,所以稱之為「引申性敵視態度」(elicited hostility attitude)。

作者接着的計量分析,發現社交媒體的滲透率對受訪者的「引申性敵視態度」有正面作用,對年輕或教育程度較低者尤為顯著。具體說來,VK的滲透率每增加10%,就會令受訪者的潛伏敵視態度加深2%。

社交平台須用得其法

在這裏介紹了兩篇論文,表面上有不同的結論,筆者覺得它們各有其意義。第一篇說明美國以至一般國家的政治矛盾才是根源,完全歸咎社交平台只會治標不治本,並非解決問題之道。

推特和其他社交媒體封鎖特朗普的賬戶,應該能夠減少他對世界所造成的負面作用,但若不正視美國國內的深層矛盾,反而會加強特朗普支持者對拜登當選是一場陰謀的想法,而通過封鎖賬戶言論自由的做法,如果處理不慎,更可能後患無窮。

第二項研究則告訴我們,採用科學方法,借助合適數據,確實可以證實社交媒體滲透率上升,足令仇恨罪案和仇外情緒變本加厲,還可以量化其作用。這個結論不但符合一般人的認知,更值得所有人,特別是決策者深思。網絡上的社交媒體不收分文,讓我們免費使用,但是世上並沒有免費午餐,我們的消費行為和生活習慣的資訊被廣告商掌握之餘,我們付出了寶貴的時間和專注力,更可能誤入歧途而不自知。

 

註1: Boxell, L. M. Gentzkow, and J. M. Shapiro, “Greater Internet Use is Not Associated with Faster Growth in Political Polarization Among US Demographic Groups,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2017, 114 (40), 10612

註2: Bursztyn, L, G. Egorov, R. Enikolopov, and M. Petrova (2019), “Social Media and Xenophobia: Evidence from Russia,” NBER Working Paper 26567

 

趙耀華 港大經管學院副教授

(本文同時於二零二一年一月二十日載於《信報》「龍虎山下」專欄。)

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